Geospatial Information
Technologies Hold Promise for Wildland Fire Management, but Challenges Remain
Gao ID: GAO-03-1047 September 23, 2003
Over the past decade, a series of devastating and deadly wildland fires has burned millions of acres of federal forests, grasslands, and deserts each year, requiring federal land management agencies to spend hundreds of millions of dollars to fight them. GAO was asked to assess opportunities to improve the way agencies manage fires through the use of geospatial information technologies, specifically, to (1) identify key geospatial information technologies for addressing different aspects of managing wildland fires, (2) summarize key challenges to the effective use of geospatial technologies in managing wildland fires, and (3) identify national opportunities to improve the effective use of geospatial technologies.
Geospatial information technologies--sensors, systems, and software that collect, manage, manipulate, analyze, model, and display information about locations on the earth's surface--can aid in managing wildland fires by providing accurate, detailed, and timely information to federal, state, and local decision makers; fire-fighting personnel; and the public. This information can be used to help reduce the risk that a fire will become uncontrollable, to respond to critical events while a fire is burning, and to aid in recovering from fire disasters. However, there are multiple challenges to effectively using these technologies to manage wildland fires, including challenges with data, systems, infrastructure, staffing, and the effective use of new products. The National Wildfire Coordinating Group--composed of representatives from the five land management agencies and from other federal, state, and tribal organizations--has several initiatives under way to address specific challenges, but progress on these initiatives has been slow, and not all of the challenges are being addressed. A root cause of many of these challenges is the lack of an overall strategy guiding interagency management of information resources and technology. To improve interagency management of information resources and technology, different teams within the Coordinating Group plan to establish an interagency geospatial strategic plan, a strategy for information resources management, and an interagency enterprise architecture--a blueprint for operational and technical change in support of wildland fire management. However, these efforts lack the seniorlevel endorsement and detailed plans and milestones necessary for success. Until effective interagency management of information resources and technology is a priority, the wildland fire community will likely continue to face challenges in effectively using geospatial information technologies. Effectively using geospatial information is of interest beyond the wildland fire management community. Detailed, accurate, and accessible geospatial information is critical in addressing homeland security and national preparedness, supporting our transportation infrastructure, and managing natural resources, among other activities. For decades, the federal government has tried to reduce duplicative geospatial data collection by coordinating activities inside and outside the federal government. Most recently, Geospatial One-Stop, one of 25 high profile e-government initiatives sponsored by the Office of Management and Budget, was initiated to develop national geospatial data standards and an Internet portal for locating geospatial data. While this and other initiatives hold promise, achieving a nationwide network of geospatial data remains a formidable challenge. GAO focused on the five federal agencies that are primarily responsible for wildland fire management: the Department of Agriculture's Forest Service and the Department of the Interior's National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bureau of Indian Affairs.
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GAO-03-1047, Geospatial Information: Technologies Hold Promise for Wildland Fire Management, but Challenges Remain
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United States General Accounting Office:
September 2003:
GAO:
Report to Congressional Requesters:
GAO-03-1047:
GEOSPATIAL Information:
Technologies Hold Promise for Wildland Fire Management, but Challenges
Remain:
GAO Highlights:
Highlights of GAO-03-1047, a report to congressional requesters
Why GAO Did This Study:
Over the past decade, a series of devastating and deadly wildland
fires has burned millions of acres of federal forests, grasslands, and
deserts each year, requiring federal land management agencies to spend
hundreds of millions of dollars to fight them. GAO was asked to assess
opportunities to improve the way agencies manage fires through the use
of geospatial information technologies, specifically, to (1) identify
key geospatial information technologies for addressing different
aspects of managing wildland fires, (2) summarize key challenges to
the effective use of geospatial technologies in managing wildland
fires, and (3) identify national opportunities to improve the
effective use of geospatial technologies.
What GAO Found:
Geospatial information technologies”sensors, systems, and software
that collect, manage, manipulate, analyze, model, and display
information about locations on the earth‘s surface”can aid in managing
wildland fires by providing accurate, detailed, and timely information
to federal, state, and local decision makers; fire-fighting personnel;
and the public. This information can be used to help reduce the risk
that a fire will become uncontrollable, to respond to critical events
while a fire is burning, and to aid in recovering from fire disasters.
However, there are multiple challenges to effectively using these
technologies to manage wildland fires, including challenges with data,
systems, infrastructure, staffing, and the effective use of new
products. The National Wildfire Coordinating Group”composed of
representatives from the five land management agencies and from other
federal, state, and tribal organizations”has several initiatives under
way to address specific challenges, but progress on these initiatives
has been slow, and not all of the challenges are being addressed. A
root cause of many of these challenges is the lack of an overall
strategy guiding interagency management of information resources and
technology. To improve interagency management of information resources
and technology, different teams within the Coordinating Group plan to
establish an interagency geospatial strategic plan, a strategy for
information resources management, and an interagency enterprise
architecture”a blueprint for operational and technical change in
support of wildland fire management. However, these efforts lack the
senior-level endorsement and detailed plans and milestones necessary
for success. Until effective interagency management of information
resources and technology is a priority, the wildland fire community
will likely continue to face challenges in effectively using
geospatial information technologies.
Effectively using geospatial information is of interest beyond the
wildland fire management community. Detailed, accurate, and accessible
geospatial information is critical in addressing homeland security and
national preparedness, supporting our transportation infrastructure,
and managing natural resources, among other activities. For decades,
the federal government has tried to reduce duplicative geospatial data
collection by coordinating activities inside and outside the federal
government. Most recently, Geospatial One-Stop, one of 25 high profile
e-government initiatives sponsored by the Office of Management and
Budget, was initiated to develop national geospatial data standards
and an Internet portal for locating geospatial data. While this and
other initiatives hold promise, achieving a nationwide network of
geospatial data remains a formidable challenge.
GAO focused on the five federal agencies that are primarily
responsible for wildland fire management: the Department of
Agriculture‘s Forest Service and the Department of the Interior‘s
National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife
Service, and Bureau of Indian Affairs.
What GAO Recommends:
GAO is making a series of recommendations to address specific
challenges in effectively using geospatial information technologies
and to improve the management of information resources and
technologies in the interagency wildland fire management community.
Commenting on a draft of this report, the Departments of Agriculture
and the Interior agreed with the report‘s conclusions and
recommendations.
Note: The graphics in this report are in color and are best viewed
electronically.
www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-03-1047
To view the full product, including the scope and methodology, click
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[End of section]
GAO-03-1047:
Letter:
Results in Brief:
Background:
Numerous Geospatial Technologies Can Be Used to Address Different
Aspects of Wildland Fire Management:
The Wildland Fire Community Faces Numerous Challenges in Using
Geospatial Information Technologies Effectively; More Must Be Done to
Address These Challenges:
New National Efforts to Improve the Use of Geospatial Information Are
Promising, but Challenges to Effective Data Sharing Remain:
Conclusions:
Recommendations:
Agency Comments:
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology:
Appendix II: Major Wildland Fire Policies, Plans, Reports, and
Initiatives:
Appendix III: Federal, State, and Local Entities with Land Management,
Technology, or Other Fire-Related Roles:
Federal Departments and Agencies:
State, Local, and Other Associations and Committees:
Appendix IV: Remote Sensing Systems:
Appendix V: Examples of Applications with Geospatial Components
Supporting Wildland Fire Management:
Appendix VI: Comments from the Departments of Agriculture and the
Interior:
Appendix VII: GAO Contacts and Acknowledgments:
GAO Contacts:
Acknowledgments:
Glossary:
Figures:
Figure 1: Wildland Fire Management Activities:
Figure 2: Acres of Land Managed by Federal Land Management Agencies:
Figure 3: National Wildfire Coordinating Group: Member Organizations:
Figure 4: Members of the Wildland Fire Leadership Council:
Figure 5: Overview of the Flow of Data Among Key Geospatial Information
Technologies and Resulting Products of These Technologies:
Figure 6: Vegetation Map, Rocky Mountain Region, Colorado, August 1999:
Figure 7: Fire Hazard Map, Rocky Mountain Region, Colorado, August
1999:
Figure 8: National Wildland Fire Outlook:
Figure 9: Fire Danger Map:
Figure 10: Satellite Images of Fires in the Northwestern United States,
July 21, 2003:
Figure 11: Satellite Image Showing Early Fire Perimeters for the Rodeo
and Chediski Fires, Arizona, June 2002:
Figure 12: An Aerial Infrared Image and Resulting Fire Perimeter Map,
September 2001:
Figure 13: Output of a Fire Behavior Model:
Figure 14: Internet-Based Maps of Active Fires:
Figure 15: Burn Severity Map, Hayman Fire, June 2002:
Tables:
Table 1: Key Geospatial Technologies:
Table 2: Characteristics of Selected Remote Sensing Systems:
Table 3: Examples of Operational Applications:
Table 4: Examples of Developmental Applications:
Abbreviations:
BIA: Bureau of Indian Affairs:
BLM: Bureau of Land Management:
FGDC: Federal Geographic Data Committee:
FS: Forest Service:
FWS: Fish and Wildlife Service:
GIS: geographic information system:
IRM: information resource management:
IT: information technology:
MODIS: Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer:
NASA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration:
NOAA: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:
NPS: National Park Service:
NWCG: National Wildfire Coordinating Group:
USGS: U.S. Geological Survey:
Letter:
September 23, 2003:
The Honorable Mark Udall
House of Representatives:
The Honorable Joel Hefley
House of Representatives:
Over the past decade, there has been a series of devastating and deadly
wildland fires on federal lands. Fires like these burn millions of
acres of forests, grasslands, and deserts each year, requiring federal
land management agencies to spend hundreds of millions of dollars to
fight them. Wildland fires also threaten communities that are near
federal lands. During the 2002 fire season, approximately 88,458
wildland fires burned about 6.9 million acres and cost the federal
government over $1.6 billion to suppress. These fires destroyed timber,
natural vegetation, wildlife habitats, homes, and businesses, and they
severely damaged forest soils and watershed areas for decades to come.
The 2002 fires also caused the deaths of 23 firefighters and drove
thousands of people from their homes. Only 2 years earlier, during the
2000 fire season, approximately 123,000 fires had burned more than 8.4
million acres and cost the federal government over $2 billion.
Geospatial information technologies--sensors, systems, and software
that collect, manage, manipulate, analyze, model, and display
information about locations on the earth's surface--can aid in managing
wildland fires by providing accurate, detailed, and timely information
to federal, state, and local decision makers; fire-fighting personnel;
and the public. This information can be used to help reduce the risk
that a fire will become uncontrollable, to respond to critical events
while a fire is burning, and to aid in recovering from fire disasters.
Concerned with recent wildland fires, you asked us to assess
opportunities to improve the way agencies manage fires through the use
of geospatial information technologies. Specifically, our objectives
were to (1) identify key geospatial information technologies for
addressing different aspects of wildland fire management, (2) summarize
key challenges to the effective use of geospatial technologies in
wildland fire management, and (3) identify national opportunities to
improve the effective use of geospatial technologies.
To accomplish these objectives, we focused our review on the five key
federal agencies that are primarily responsible for wildland fire
management on public lands: the Department of Agriculture's Forest
Service and the Department of the Interior's National Park Service,
Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bureau of
Indian Affairs. To address the final objective, we also reviewed
national efforts to improve the use of geospatial information,
undertaken by the Office of Management and Budget and the Federal
Geographic Data Committee. We conducted our work between October 2002
and September 2003 in accordance with generally accepted government
auditing standards. Appendix I contains further details on our
objectives, scope, and methodology. Key terms are defined in the
glossary.
Results in Brief:
Numerous geospatial information technologies are currently available,
in use, or under development that can aid in wildland fire management.
These technologies include remote sensing systems, the Global
Positioning System, geographic information systems (GIS), and
specialized software for modeling and visualizing locations and events.
Land management agencies are using geospatial technologies in a number
of different ways, ranging from mapping vegetation and dangerous
accumulations of fuel, to identifying the perimeter and behavior of
active fires, to mapping burned areas for rehabilitation. However, the
extent to which these technologies are currently being used is not
fully known.
There are multiple challenges to effectively using geospatial
technologies--all complicated by the fact that wildland fire management
extends beyond a single agency's responsibility and requires a
collaborative interagency approach. Key challenges include issues with
the following:
* Data: Geospatial data are not consistently available and are not
compatible across different agencies, states, and local entities. As a
result, decision makers often lack the timely, integrated information
they need to make sound decisions in managing different aspects of
wildland fire.
* Systems: Agencies have developed multiple, duplicative systems to
address local or agency-specific needs. As a result, many similar
systems are not interoperable. Also, there is no single comprehensive
inventory of the systems used to support wildland fire management.
* Infrastructure: GIS specialists do not consistently have access to
the equipment, communications infrastructure, and Internet when and
where they need them to address wildland fires. As a result, these
specialists often have difficulty in obtaining and manipulating
geospatial data and in producing geospatial maps at remote fire sites.
* Staffing: The training and qualifications of the GIS specialists who
work on wildland fires are not consistent, resulting in major
differences in these individuals' capabilities.
* New products: While new products and services are available to
support wildland fire management, commercial vendors expressed concern
that the fire community is not aware of these products. Land management
agencies noted that the cost of commercial products can be prohibitive
and that licensing restrictions can keep local land units from sharing
data with others in the wildland fire community.
The National Wildfire Coordinating Group--comprising representatives
from the five land management agencies and from other federal, state,
and tribal organizations--has several initiatives under way to address
specific challenges to using geospatial information technologies, but
progress on these initiatives has been slow, and these initiatives do
not address all of the challenges. A root cause of many of these
challenges is the lack of an overall strategy guiding interagency
management of information resources and technologies. Currently,
different teams within the Coordinating Group are planning initiatives
to improve the interagency management of information resources and
technology. Focusing specifically on geospatial technologies, one
interagency team has proposed developing an interagency strategic plan
for using geospatial technologies to support wildland fire management.
Another interagency team developed a draft Information Resource
Management (IRM) strategy that provides high-level objectives for
interagency IRM management. At a broader level, another interagency
team plans to develop an enterprise architecture--a blueprint for
operational and technological change in support of wildland fire
management. However, these efforts lack the senior-level endorsement
and the detailed plans and milestones necessary for success. Until
effective interagency management of information technologies becomes a
priority, the wildland fire community will likely continue to face
challenges in effectively using geospatial technologies.
Effectively using geospatial information is of interest beyond the
wildland fire management community. Detailed, accurate, and accessible
geospatial information is critical in addressing homeland security and
national preparedness, supporting our transportation infrastructure,
managing natural resources, and carrying out the national census--among
other activities. For decades, the federal government has tried to
reduce duplicative geospatial data collection by coordinating GIS
activities within and outside the federal government. Most recently,
the E-Government Act of 2002 called for common protocols for geographic
information systems in order to reduce redundant data collection and
information and to promote collaboration and use of standards for
government geographic information.[Footnote 1] To improve the use of
geospatial data, the Office of Management and Budget initiated
Geospatial One-Stop, a project to develop an Internet portal for
locating geospatial data and to develop national geospatial data
standards. While this and other initiatives hold promise, achieving the
vision of a nationwide network of geospatial data remains a formidable
challenge. We recently reported that a much more substantial effort
will be required to attain the broader vision of seamless integration
of GIS data nationwide--and that this effort will probably have to
continue over an extended period of time.[Footnote 2]
We are making recommendations to the Secretaries of Agriculture and the
Interior to address specific challenges in effectively using geospatial
technologies and to improve the management of information resources and
technologies in the interagency wildland fire management community. In
commenting on a draft of this report, the departments agreed with the
report's conclusions and recommendations, and noted that staff from the
two departments will be tasked with developing an action plan to
address our findings and the broader issue of geospatial needs for
wildland fire management.
Background:
Wildland Fire Management Life Cycle: An Overview:
Effectively managing wildland fires can be viewed in terms of a life
cycle--there are key activities that can be performed before a fire
starts to reduce the risk of its becoming uncontrollable; other
activities that can take place during a fire to detect the fire before
it gets too large and to respond to it; and still others that can be
performed after a fire has stopped in order to stabilize, rehabilitate,
and restore damaged forests and rangelands. Prefire activities can
include identifying areas that are at risk for wildland fire by
assessing changes in vegetation and the accumulation of fuels
(including small trees, underbrush, and dead vegetation), as well as
these fuels' proximity to communities; taking action to reduce fuels
through a variety of mechanisms (including timber harvesting,
management-ignited or prescribed fires, mechanical thinning, and use of
natural fires); and monitoring fire weather conditions. Other
activities during this phase can include providing fire preparedness
training and strategically deploying equipment and personnel resources
to at-risk areas.
Activities that take place during a fire include detecting fires,
dispatching resources, planning the initial attack on the fire,
monitoring and mapping the fire's spread and behavior, and planning and
managing subsequent attacks on the fire--if they are warranted.
Postfire activities can include assessing the impact of the fire;
providing emergency stabilization of burned areas to protect life,
property, and natural resources from postfire degradation, such as
flooding, contamination of a watershed area, and surface erosion;
rehabilitating lands to remove fire debris, repair soils, and plant new
vegetation; and monitoring the rehabilitation efforts over time to
ensure that they are on track. Other activities--such as enhancing
community awareness--can and should take place throughout the fire
management life cycle. Figure 1 depicts a fire management life cycle,
with key activities in each phase.
Figure 1: Wildland Fire Management Activities:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Federal Land Management Responsibilities:
Five federal agencies share responsibility for managing the majority of
our nation's federal lands--the Department of Agriculture's Forest
Service (FS) and the Department of the Interior's National Park Service
(NPS), Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Fish and Wildlife Service
(FWS), and Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). While each agency has a
different mission and responsibility for different areas and types of
land, they work together to address catastrophic wildland fires, which
often cross agency boundaries. In addition, state, local, and tribal
governments and private individuals own thousands of acres that are
adjacent to federal lands and are similarly susceptible to wildland
fires. Figure 2 shows the number of acres of land managed by each of
the five federal agencies.
Figure 2: Acres of Land Managed by Federal Land Management Agencies:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
The National Fire Plan:
After years of catastrophic fires, in September 2000, the Departments
of Agriculture and the Interior jointly issued a report on managing the
impact of wildland fires. This report forms the basis of what is now
known as the National Fire Plan--a long-term multibillion-dollar effort
to address the nation's risk of wildland fires. The plan directs
funding and attention to five key initiatives:
* Hazardous fuels reduction--investing in projects to reduce the
buildup of fuels that leads to severe fires.
* Firefighting--ensuring adequate preparedness for future fires by
acquiring and maintaining personnel and equipment and by placing
firefighting resources in locations where they can most effectively be
used to respond to fires.
* Rehabilitation and restoration--restoring landscapes and rebuilding
ecosystems that have been damaged by wildland fires.
* Community assistance--working directly with communities to ensure
that they are adequately protected from fires.
* Accountability--establishing mechanisms to oversee and track progress
in implementing the National Fire Plan, which includes developing
performance measures, processes for reporting progress, and budgeting
information.
A key tenet of the National Fire Plan is coordination between
government agencies at the federal, state, and local levels to develop
strategies and carry out programs. Building on this goal of
cooperation, the five land management agencies have worked with state
governors and other stakeholders to develop a comprehensive strategy
and an implementation plan for managing wildland fires, hazardous
fuels, and ecosystem restoration and rehabilitation on federal and
adjacent state, tribal, and private forest and rangelands in the United
States.Appendix II provides a summary of the major federal policies,
plans, reports, and initiatives on managing wildland fires and how they
are related. In developing these integrated plans and initiatives, the
land management agencies identified other federal agencies that have
roles in wildland fire management: agencies that manage other federal
lands, including the Department of Defense and Department of Energy;
agencies that research, manage, or use technologies that can aid in
wildland fire management, including the Department of the Interior's
U.S. Geological Survey, the National Aeronautical and Space
Administration, the Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, and the Department of Defense's National
Imagery and Mapping Agency; and agencies with other fire-related
responsibilities, including the Department of Homeland Security's
Federal Emergency Management Agency and the Environmental Protection
Agency. The integrated plans also identify key state and local
organizations that may collaborate on wildland fire management.
Appendix III identifies key federal, state, and local organizations and
their roles in wildland fire management.
An Interagency Framework Supports the National Fire Plan:
Over the past four decades, the Departments of Agriculture and the
Interior have established an interagency framework to handle wildland
fire management--a framework that currently supports the National Fire
Plan. In 1965, the Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management
established the National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, Idaho. The
Fire Center is the nation's principal management and logistical support
center for wildland firefighting and now includes the five land
management agencies, the National Weather Service, and the Department
of the Interior's Office of Aircraft Services. The Department of
Homeland Security's Federal Emergency Management Agency and the
National Association of State Foresters also have a presence at the
center. Working together, representatives from this mix of
organizations exchange fire protection information and training
services and coordinate and support operations for managing wildland
fire incidents while they are occurring, throughout the United States.
In 1976, the departments established the National Wildfire Coordinating
Group to coordinate government standards for wildland fire management
and related programs, in order to avoid duplicating the various
agencies' efforts and to encourage active collaboration among entities.
This group comprises representatives from the five land management
agencies and from other federal, state, and tribal organizations.
Figure 3 identifies these member organizations. The coordinating group
seeks to foster more effective execution of each agency's fire
management program through agreements on common training, equipment,
and other standards; however, each agency determines whether and how it
will adopt the group's proposals. The group is organized into 15
working teams, which focus on issues that include information resource
management (IRM), fire equipment, training, fire weather, and wildland
fire education. Most recently, the coordinating group established the
IRM program management office to further support the IRM working team
by developing guidance and products. In addition, the IRM working team
has established two subgroups to focus on specific issues involving
geospatial information and data administration.
Figure 3: National Wildfire Coordinating Group: Member Organizations:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
In recent years, we have reported that despite these interagency
efforts, the Forest Service and the Department of the Interior had not
established clearly defined and effective leadership for ensuring
collaboration and coordination among the organizations that respond to
wildland fires.[Footnote 3] Further, the National Academy of Public
Administration recommended that the Secretaries of Agriculture and the
Interior establish a national interagency council to achieve more
consistent and coordinated efforts in implementing national fire
policies and plans.[Footnote 4] In response to these concerns, in April
2002, the departments established the Wildland Fire Leadership Council.
This council comprises senior members of both departments and of key
external organizations; it is charged with providing active, visible
interagency leadership and coordination and consistent, integrated
policy direction to the land management agencies regarding wildland
fire management. Figure 4 identifies members of the Leadership Council.
Figure 4: Members of the Wildland Fire Leadership Council:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Accurate information about specific locations is critical to all of the
activities in wildland fire management. To manage information that
extends beyond organizational boundaries in support of a common
mission--such as the wildland fire mission--it is useful to view these
activities within the context of the information technology management
discipline of enterprise architecture management.
Enterprise Architecture: A Brief Description:
If properly developed, an enterprise architecture provides a clear and
comprehensive picture of an entity, whether it is an organization (for
example, a federal department, agency, or bureau) or a functional or
mission area that cuts across more than one organization (for example,
grant management, homeland security, or wildland fire management).
These architectures are recognized as essential tools for effectively
and efficiently engineering business operations and the systems and
databases that are needed to support these operations.
Enterprise architectures are systemically derived and captured
blueprints or descriptions--in useful models, diagrams, and narrative-
-of the mode of operation for a given enterprise. This mode of
operation is described in both (1) logical terms, such as interrelated
business processes and business rules, information needs and flows,
data models, work locations, and users, and (2) technical terms, such
as hardware, software, data, communications, and security attributes
and performance standards. They provide these perspectives both for the
enterprise's current, or "as is," environment and for its target, or
"to be," environment, as well as a transition plan for moving from the
"as is" to the "to be" environment.
Using enterprise architectures is a basic tenet of effective
information technology (IT) management, embodied in federal guidance
and commercial best practices.[Footnote 5] We recently issued an
executive guide for improving enterprise architecture
management.[Footnote 6] When developed and used properly, these
architectures define both business operations and the underlying IT
infrastructure that supports these operations in a way that optimizes
interdependencies and interrelationships. They provide a common frame
of reference to guide and constrain decisions about the content of
information asset investments in a way that can ensure that the right
information is available to those who need it, when they need it.
Employed in concert with IT investment management practices designed to
ensure that new investments are compliant with the architecture,
enterprise architectures can greatly increase an organization's
likelihood of making successful and effective technology
investments.[Footnote 7] Our experience with federal agencies has shown
that investing in information technology without the context of an
architecture often results in systems that are duplicative, not well
integrated, and unnecessarily costly to maintain and
interface.[Footnote 8]
Numerous Geospatial Technologies Can Be Used to Address Different
Aspects of Wildland Fire Management:
Geospatial information technologies--sensors, systems, and software
that collect, manage, manipulate, analyze, model, and display
information about positions on the earth's surface--can aid in managing
wildland fires by providing accurate, detailed, and timely information
to federal, state, and local decision makers; fire-fighting personnel;
and the public. This information can be used to help reduce the risk
that a fire will become uncontrollable, to respond to critical events
while a fire is burning, and to aid in recovering from fire disasters.
Specific examples of geospatial technologies include remote sensing
systems, the Global Positioning System, and geographic information
systems. In addition, specialized software can be used in conjunction
with remote sensing data and geographic information systems to
manipulate geographic data and allow users to analyze, model, and
visualize locations and events. Table 1 describes key geospatial
technologies.
Table 1: Key Geospatial Technologies:
Technology: Remote sensing systems; Description: Remote sensing
systems observe data that are
either emitted or reflected by the earth and the atmosphere, collecting
these data from a distance--such as from a satellite or an aerial
platform. Remote sensing systems involve different observing
technologies, including cameras, scanners, radar and sonar systems,
radiometers, lasers, and thermal devices--to name a few--and are
capable of collecting data from one or more bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum.[A] Data from different bands provide
different kinds of information. For example, data observed in the
infrared band can identify heat sources that are not observable in the
visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum. When data are collected
from multiple bands, a more sophisticated analysis can be performed.
Key factors that differentiate one sensor from another include the
type(s) of data collected, the resolutionb of the images, the width (or
swath) of area covered on the ground, and the rate at which the
sensor's platform revisits an area on the ground. Appendix IV provides
more detail on types of sensors and identifies the characteristics of
several remote sensing systems.; After being observed, remotely sensed
data need to be processed--a function that can include referencing the
data to a position on earth, calibrating them, and then transforming
them into a usable format. The resulting product can be an image or a
quantitative data product, which can in turn be used as an input to
other geospatial technologies, including geographic information
systems and specialized software.
Technology: Global Positioning System; Description: The Global
Positioning System is a
constellation of orbiting satellites that provides navigation data to
military and civilian users around the world. These satellites orbit
the earth every 12 hours, emitting continuous navigation signals. With
the proper equipment, users can receive these signals and use them to
calculate time, location, and velocity. Receivers have been developed
for use on aircraft, ships, and land-based vehicles, as well as via
mobile hand-held units. Data from the Global Positioning System can be
used to reference remotely sensed aerial images or ground-based human
observations to specific geographic coordinates, a process called geo-
referencing.
Technology: Geographic information systems; Description: A geographic
information system (GIS)
is a system of computer software, hardware, and data used to
manipulate, analyze, and graphically display a potentially wide array
of information associated with geographic locations. These systems can
receive input from remotely sensed images from satellites and aerial
platforms, as well as from other sources, including human observation,
tabular data, and maps. These systems are capable of relating multiple
layers of data (such as roads, vegetation, structures, and utilities)
concerning the same geographical location and representing these
multiple layers of information as one composite result.
Technology: Specialized software; Description: Specialized software
for modeling, decision
support, and visualization complements the sensing, positioning, and
GIS technologies described above by allowing analysts and managers to
analyze data and explore different scenarios--and thereby make better
informed decisions. For example, fire behavior specialists use such
software to model fire behavior. Inputs to these models come from
satellite images as well as weather data, tabular data, and on-the-
ground observations.
Source: GAO.
[A] A spectral band is a set of adjacent wavelengths in the
electromagnetic spectrum. Examples include the ultraviolet, visible,
near-infrared, mid-infrared, and thermal infrared bands.
[B] Spatial resolution is a measure of the size of the smallest feature
that can be distinguished in an image. That is, in a 30-meter
resolution image, one can discern objects 30 meters and larger. Images
with smaller discernable objects are considered to have higher
resolutions.
[End of table]
While individual technologies can be used to obtain information and
products, the integration of these technologies holds promise for
providing even more valuable information to decision makers. For
example, remote sensing systems provide images that are useful in their
own right. However, when images are geo-referenced and combined with
other layers of data in a geographic information system--and then used
with specialized software--a more sophisticated analysis can be
performed, and more timely and sound decisions can be made. Figure 5
provides an overview of the relationships among the different
technologies and some resulting products.
Figure 5: Overview of the Flow of Data Among Key Geospatial Information
Technologies and Resulting Products of These Technologies:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Federal Land Management Agencies Are Using Geospatial Technologies to
Support Wildland Fire Management:
The geospatial information technologies mentioned above--remote
sensing systems, the Global Positioning System, geographic information
systems, and specialized softwareæare being used to some extent in
managing wildland fires. These technologies are used throughout the
wildland fire management life cycle. Key examples follow.
Examples of Geospatial Technology Use: Prefire:
Before a fire starts, local and regional land managers often use
vegetation and fuels maps derived from remote sensing data in
conjunction with a geographic information system to understand
conditions and to identify areas for fuels treatments. Some land
management offices have also developed software to help them assess
risk areas and prioritize fuels treatment projects. For example, figure
6 depicts a vegetation map, and figure 7 depicts a map showing areas
with increased risk of fires. Interestingly, an area that the map
identified as being at high risk of fire later burned during the Hayman
fire of 2002.
Figure 6: Vegetation Map, Rocky Mountain Region, Colorado, August 1999:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Figure 7: Fire Hazard Map, Rocky Mountain Region, Colorado, August
1999:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Land management agencies also use geospatial products related to the
weather to aid in fire planning, detecting, and monitoring activities.
Weather-based products are derived from ground-based lightning
detection and weather observing systems, as well as from fire-related
weather predictions from the National Weather Service. Figure 8 depicts
a seasonal fire outlook, and figure 9 depicts a fire danger map that is
based on daily weather predictions.
Figure 8: National Wildland Fire Outlook:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Figure 9: Fire Danger Map:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Examples of Geospatial Technology Use: During Fire:
During a fire, some fire responders use satellite and aerial imagery,
in combination with Global Positioning System data, geographic
information systems, and specialized fire behavior modeling software,
to obtain information about the fire and to help plan how they will
respond to it. For example, the Forest Service uses satellite data to
produce images of active fires. Also, the National Interagency Fire
Center manages an aerial infrared program that flies aircraft equipped
with infrared sensors over large fires to detect heat and fire areas.
These images contribute to the development of daily fire perimeter
maps. Figure 10 depicts a satellite image of active fires. Figure 11
depicts a satellite image of a fire perimeter, and figure 12 depicts an
aerial infrared image and a fire perimeter map based on that image.
Some incident teams also use fire growth modeling software to predict
the growth of wildland fires in terms of size, intensity, and spread,
considering variable terrain, fuels, and weather. Using this
information, incident managers are able to estimate short-and long-term
fire behaviors, plan for potential fires, communicate concerns and
needs to state and local governments and the public, and request and
position resources. Figure 13 shows the output of a fire behavior
model.
Figure 10: Satellite Images of Fires in the Northwestern United States,
July 21, 2003:
[See PDF for image]
Note: Images from NASA's Aqua satellite, Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS).
[End of figure]
Figure 11: Landsat Satellite Image Showing Early Fire Perimeters for
the Rodeo and Chediski Fires, Arizona, June 2002:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Figure 12: An Aerial Infrared Image and Resulting Fire Perimeter Map,
September 2001:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Figure 13: Output of a Fire Behavior Model:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
Geospatial technologies are also used to provide information on active
fires to the general public. The wildland fire community and the U.S.
Geological Survey established an Internet Web site, at www.geomac.gov,
to provide access to geospatial information about active fires. This
site allows visitors to identify the location of wildland fires on a
broad scale and then focus in to identify information on the location
and status of specific fires. Figure 14 shows images from the Web site.
Figure 14: Internet-Based Maps of Active Fires:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
It is important to note that there are many commercial products and
services available for use during a fire--ranging from high-resolution
aerial and satellite imagery, to handheld Global Positioning System
devices, to enhanced visualization models, to on-site geographic
information systems, equipment, and personnel. Incident commanders
responsible for responding to fires often choose to purchase commercial
products and services to supplement interagency resources.
Examples of Geospatial Technology Use: Postfire:
After a fire occurs, burned-area teams have recently begun to use
remote sensing data in conjunction with geographic information systems
to determine the extent of fire damage and to help plan and implement
emergency stabilization and rehabilitation efforts. Typical products
include burn severity and burn intensity maps. Figure 15 depicts a
satellite image and a burn severity map showing areas that have a high
priority for emergency stabilization measures. Geospatial technologies
also aid in monitoring rehabilitation efforts for years after a fire to
ensure that restoration plans are on track.
Figure 15: Burn Severity Map, Hayman Fire, June 2002:
[See PDF for image]
[End of table]
New Uses of Geospatial Information Technologies to Aid in Wildland Fire
Management Are under Development:
The Forest Service and Interior are researching and developing new
applications of geospatial information technologies to support business
needs in wildland fire management. In addition, the Joint Fire Science
Program, a partnership of the five land management agencies and the
U.S. Geological Survey, funds numerous research projects each year on
fire and fuels management. Once again, these initiatives vary greatly-
-ranging from research on remote sensing systems to the development of
interagency information systems with geospatial components, to
improvements in existing software models. Examples of these efforts
include the following:
* Sensor research. Several new research projects are under way on LIDAR
and hyperspectral sensors.[Footnote 9] For example, a BLM state office
is researching the use of high-resolution hyperspectral and LIDAR
imaging technologies for improving the identification of vegetation;
planning hazardous fuels projects; and monitoring wildland urban
interface projects, the effects of wildland fires, and fire
rehabilitation efforts. Additionally, the Forest Service is exploring
the use of mobile LIDAR systems for assessing smoke plumes, and it is
conducting research on using LIDAR data, satellite data, and modeling
techniques to forecast air quality after a fire.
* Vegetation data and tools. The five land management agencies and the
U.S. Geological Survey are working together to develop a national
geospatial dataset and a set of modeling tools for wildland fire
planning. This effort, called LANDFIRE, is to provide a comprehensive
package of spatial data layers, models, and tools needed by land and
fire managers. The system is expected to help prioritize, plan,
complete, and monitor fuel treatment and restoration projects on
national, regional, and local scales. A prototype of the system covers
central Utah and Northwestern Montana and is expected to be completed
by April 2005.
* Interagency information systems. The five land management agencies
are developing information systems for use by Interior and Forest
Service offices to track efforts under the National Fire Plan. The
National Fire Plan Operations and Reporting System is an interagency
system designed to assist field personnel in managing and reporting
accomplishments for work conducted under the National Fire Plan. It is
a Web-based data collection tool with GIS support that locates projects
and treatments. It consists of three modules--hazardous fuels
reduction, restoration and rehabilitation, and community assistance.
While the agencies are currently using the system, it will not be fully
operational until 2004. Another information system, the Fire Program
Analysis system, is an interagency planning tool for analysis and
budgeting to be used by the five federal wildland fire management
agencies. The first module--preparedness--is scheduled for
implementation in September 2004 and will evaluate the cost-
effectiveness of alternative initial attack operations in meeting
multiple fire management objectives. Additional system modules are
expected to provide geospatial capabilities and to address extended
attack, large fires and national fire resources, hazardous fuels
reduction, wildland fire use, and fire prevention.
* Improvements in existing systems. There are multiple efforts planned
or under way to improve existing systems or to add geospatial
components to systems that are currently under development. For
example, researchers at a federal fire sciences laboratory are
exploring possible improvements to the Wildland Fire Assessment System,
an Internet-based system that provides information on a broad area of
national fire potential and weather maps for fire managers and the
general public. Specifically, researchers are working to develop
products that depict moisture levels in live fuels, which will aid in
assessing the potential for wildland fires.
Extent to Which Geospatial Technologies Are Used to Support Wildland
Fire Management Is Not Fully Known:
While many land management entities are using geospatial technologies
in support of their wildland fire-related activities, the extent to
which geospatial technologies and tools are being used in support of
wildland fire management is not fully known. In an effort to get a more
accurate picture of how extensively geospatial information technologies
are being used, the Geospatial Task Group, a subgroup of the National
Wildfire Coordinating Group's (NWCG) IRM working team, is conducting a
survey of wildland fire personnel to determine what technologies are
being used and how they are being used. Group members stated that this
information would help them to develop interagency standards for
equipment and training and would allow land managers to learn from
others' experiences in using some of the geospatial information
technologies. For example, some incident teams use fire modeling
software during active fires, while some land management offices are
using the software in planning prescribed fires. The group initiated
its survey in June 2003 and expects to complete its assessment by
September 2003.
The Wildland Fire Community Faces Numerous Challenges in Using
Geospatial Information Technologies Effectively; More Must Be Done to
Address These Challenges:
There are numerous challenges in using geospatial information
technologies effectively in the wildland fire community. Key challenges
involve data, systems, infrastructure, staffing, and the effective use
of new products and technologies--all complicated by the fact that
wildland fire management extends beyond a single agency's
responsibility. NWCG has several initiatives under way to address
specific challenges to using geospatial information technologies.
However, progress on these initiatives has been slow, and the
initiatives do not address all of the challenges.
A root cause of many of these challenges is the lack of an overall
strategy guiding interagency management of information resources and
technologies. Currently, different IRM-related teams within NWCG are
planning initiatives to improve the interagency management of
information resources and technology. Focusing specifically on
geospatial technologies, the NWCG's IRM working team's geospatial task
group has proposed developing an interagency strategic plan for using
geospatial technologies to support wildland fire management.
Additionally, the IRM working team has developed a draft IRM strategy
to guide information technology development and use by the interagency
fire community. At a broader level, NWCG's IRM program management
office plans to develop an enterprise architecture to guide and
integrate business operations for wildland fire management. However,
these efforts lack the senior-level endorsement and the detailed plans
and milestones necessary for success. Until effective interagency
management of information technologies becomes a priority, the wildland
fire community will likely continue to face challenges in effectively
using geospatial technologies.
Many Challenges Affect the Usefulness of Geospatial Information
Technologies:
As the use of geospatial information technologies has become more
common in wildland fire management, the challenges to effectively using
and sharing geospatial information have become more apparent. Key
challenges include the following:
* Data issues. Users of geospatial information have noted problems in
acquiring compatible and comprehensive geospatial data. For example,
GIS specialists involved in fighting fires reported that they did not
have ready access to the geospatial data they needed. They noted that
some local jurisdictions have geospatial data, but others do not.
Further, they reported that the data from neighboring jurisdictions are
often incompatible. GIS specialists reported that the first days at a
wildland fire are spent trying to gather the geospatial information
needed to accurately map the fire. While concerns with data
availability and compatibility are often noted during fire incidents,
these issues are also evident before and after fire incidents. For
example, we recently reported that the five land management agencies
did not know how effective their postfire emergency stabilization and
rehabilitation treatments were because, among other reasons, local land
units do not routinely collect comparable information.[Footnote 10] As
a result of unavailable or incompatible data, decision makers often
lack the timely, integrated information they need to make sound
decisions in managing different aspects of wildland fire.
On a related note, the development and implementation of data standards
is a well-recognized solution for addressing some of the problems
mentioned above, but there are currently no nationally recognized
geospatial data standards for use on fires. GIS specialists frequently
cited a need for common, interagency geospatial data standards for use
with fires. They noted that the land management agencies and states do
not record information about fires--such as fire location, fire
perimeter, or the date of different fire perimeters--in the same way.
System issues. In 1996, NWCG reported that there was a duplication of
information systems and computer applications supporting wildland fire
management, noting that agencies were using 15 different weather-
related software applications, 9 logistics applications, and 7 dispatch
applications.[Footnote 11] Since that time, the number of applications
has grown--as has the potential for duplication of effort. Duplicative
systems not only waste limited funds, but they also make
interoperability between systems more difficult.
This issue is complicated by the fact that there is no single,
comprehensive inventory of information systems and applications that
could be of use to others in the interagency wildland fire community. A
single comprehensive inventory would allow the wildland fire community
to identify and learn about available applications and tools, and to
avoid duplicating efforts to develop new applications. We identified
five different inventories of software applications--including
information systems, models, and tools--that are currently being used
in support of wildland fire management. While these listings are not
limited to geospatial applications, many of the applications have
geospatial components. The most comprehensive listing is an inventory
managed by NWCG. This inventory identifies 199 applications used in
support of wildland fire, but even this inventory is not complete. That
is, it did not include 45 applications that were included in the other
inventories. Additionally, it did not include 24 applications that we
had identified. Appendix V provides information on applications with
geospatial components.
Infrastructure issues. Many GIS specialists noted that there are
problems in getting equipment, networking capabilities, and Internet
access to the areas that need them during a fire. For example, at a
recent fire in a remote location, these specialists reported that they
were unable to produce needed information and maps because they had
problems with networking capabilities. Again, this issue is critical
during a fire, when incident teams try to set up a command center in a
remote location. However, it is also an issue when federal regional
managers try to obtain consistent information from the different land
management agencies' field offices before or after fires. The majority
of local field offices have equipment to support geospatial information
and analysis, but some do not.
Staffing issues. GIS specialists noted that the training and
qualifications of the GIS specialists who support fire incidents is not
consistent. Specifically, officials noted that skills and
qualifications vary widely among those who work with geographic
information systems. For example, some GIS specialists are capable of
interpreting infrared images as well as developing maps, but others are
not. Some have experience working with GIS applications but are not
specifically trained to develop GIS maps for fires.
Use of new products. While many commercial vendors are developing
geospatial products and services that could be of use to the wildland
fire community--including advanced satellite and aerial imaging; GIS
software and equipment; and advanced mapping products, including
analyses, visualization, and modeling--many have expressed concern that
the wildland fire community is not aware of these advancements or has
little funding for these products. Land managers acknowledged the value
of many of these products, but noted that acquiring these products
needs to be driven by business needs. Agency officials also expressed
concern that the cost of these products and services can be prohibitive
and that licensing restrictions could keep them from sharing the
commercial data and products with others in the wildland fire
community.
National Wildfire Coordinating Group Has Initiated Efforts to Address
Some Geospatial Challenges, but Progress Has Been Slow and Not All
Challenges Are Being Addressed:
Different NWCG teams (including the IRM working team, the IRM program
management office, the IRM working team's geospatial task group, and
the IRM working team's data administration working group) are
undertaking efforts to address specific challenges to effectively using
information technologies. Specifically:
* Focusing on geospatial data issues, NWCG teams are working to share
geospatial data and to define geospatial data standards. To date, an
NWCG team has established an Internet site where geospatial data can be
provided and obtained. NWCG teams have also begun developing data
standards for daily and final fire perimeters with a goal of
implementing these standards across the land management agencies.
* Recognizing the large number of systems supporting fire management,
an NWCG team is managing the development of five new interagency
systems to replace several similar systems that are currently being
used by different agencies. For example, the team has developed a
resource ordering and status system to replace four existing systems
and is developing an integrated system for tracking the qualifications
of individuals assigned to fire incidents (such as incident commanders
and firefighters), which should replace separate tracking systems that
are currently used by the five land management agencies. NWCG is also
working to improve the inventory of information systems and
applications that are used to support wildland fire management. This
team is seeking validation of the information already in the inventory
and adding new items to the inventory as they become known.
* Focusing on the development of GIS specialists' skills, an ad hoc
group not associated with NWCG developed a training course for GIS
technical specialists who work on fires, to provide them a minimum set
of qualifications, with the intent of obtaining a consistent level of
GIS skills among the specialists. An NWCG team is evaluating this
training for use throughout the wildland fire community. Also, this
NWCG team has proposed a minimum set of qualifications for GIS
specialists who work on fires.
However, progress on these geospatial initiatives has been slow.
Although these initiatives have been under development for over 14
months, senior NWCG IRM officials have not yet endorsed proposals for a
data standard on fire perimeters, the GIS specialists' qualifications
for incident support, or the GIS specialists' training. NWCG officials
were unable to estimate when they would evaluate or implement these
proposals; they explained that they have multiple competing priorities.
Further, these initiatives do not address all of the challenges to
effectively using geospatial information technologies. The initiatives
do not address issues associated with infrastructure and the use of new
technologies, and they do not comprehensively address all of the issues
with data, systems, and staffing. For example, other geospatial data
standards are needed to achieve consistency in the geospatial data used
to support wildland fire management.
Effective Interagency IT Management Could Help Address Challenges:
Effective interagency IT management could help address the challenges
faced by the wildland fire community in using geospatial information
and technologies. Such an approach could address the implementation and
enforcement of national geospatial data standards for managing wildland
fires, an interagency strategic approach to systems and infrastructure
development, a plan for ensuring consistent equipment and training
throughout the wildland fire community, and a thorough evaluation of
user needs and opportunities for meeting those needs through new
products and technologies.
Acknowledging many of the geospatial and information management
challenges, in September 2002 the National Academy of Public
Administration reported that a national information technology/
information management framework is needed to guide future development
and deployment of systems and information sources to support more cost-
effective fire suppression.[Footnote 12] Such a framework would provide
an architecture for systems, applications, data, and networks, based on
user-identified needs. The academy recommended that the agencies
involved work together under the guidance of the Wildland Fire
Leadership Council to describe what the desired system and data sources
should accomplish in fire management and how individual components and
data sources can become functioning parts of the overall system. The
academy also recommended that the framework provide uniform data
policies and standards to ensure the interoperability needed among
federal, state, and local systems to maximize the utility and
maintenance of available geographic information.
National Wildfire Coordinating Group Plans to Improve Interagency IT
Management, but Efforts Lack Senior-Level Endorsement and Detailed
Plans and Milestones:
Three different teams within NWCG are planning initiatives to improve
the interagency management of geospatial information and information
resources and technology. However, these initiatives lack the senior-
level endorsement and detailed plans and milestones necessary for
success.
Focusing specifically on geospatial technologies, the Geospatial Task
Group (a subgroup of NWCG's IRM working team) has proposed developing
an interagency strategic plan for using geospatial technologies to
support wildland fire management. Officials proposed that this
geospatial strategic plan would evaluate the use of technologies in
support of the wildland fire mission, assess the need for these
technologies, explore opportunities to improve these technologies, and
contribute to developing an interagency geospatial infrastructure.
However, NWCG has not approved funding for this initiative, and as a
result, there is as yet no schedule for developing this geospatial
strategic plan.
Focusing on IRM management, NWCG's IRM working team developed a draft
IRM strategy to help guide information technology development and use
by the interagency fire community. However, this plan has been in draft
form since March 2002, and officials could not estimate when it would
be finalized. Further, the draft plan includes high-level objectives,
but does not include detailed action items or schedules for
accomplishing these objectives. For example, the draft IRM strategy
lists objectives such as leveraging existing technologies,
incorporating emerging technologies, and developing and obtaining a
workforce that is fully trained and skilled in the use of IRM
applications. However, the plan does not identify any activities or
schedules for accomplishing these objectives.
At a broader level, NWCG's IRM program management office plans to
develop an interagency enterprise architecture to guide and integrate
business operations for wildland fire management. According to federal
guidance on developing enterprise architectures, one of the most
important initial steps is to obtain and demonstrate senior-level
support for the architecture effort.[Footnote 13] Another critical
element is to demonstrate a clear plan, or roadmap, for developing the
architecture. Such a plan would include critical steps, deliverables,
and estimated time frames for the deliverables. Critical activities in
the plan would include a description of the current IT environment
(hardware, software, data, communications); an assessment of user needs
and technological opportunities for meeting those needs; a target
environment; and a transition plan to get to the target environment.
Finally, for an enterprise architecture to be effective, it needs to be
tied to investment processes and controls. That way, decision makers
can ensure that new investments in technology are consistent with the
target environment.
NWCG's IRM program management office is beginning to work on an
interagency enterprise architecture. To date, the office has
established a goal of developing an enterprise architecture for the
interagency wildland fire community and has designated an IRM program
manager, data architect, and applications architect to help build it.
Further, the data and applications architects expect to be certified in
the development of federal enterprise architectures by October 2003.
However, the planned interagency enterprise architecture lacks senior-
level support, detailed plans and milestones, and a link to investment
control processes. The Wildland Fire Leadership Council was established
in April 2002 to provide senior-level leadership in the wildland fire
community. However, the Leadership Council has not formally endorsed
NWCG's interagency enterprise architecture effort. Without this senior-
level support, the interagency wildland fire community runs the risk
that its components will continue to invest in duplicative "stovepiped"
systems and will perpetuate the existing situation of limited
interoperability and unnecessarily costly operations.
Additionally, although the IRM program management office has
established the goal of developing an enterprise architecture, it has
not yet defined exactly what it will deliver and by when. NWCG
officials could not provide estimates for when they would develop a
thorough understanding of the current "as is" interagency environment,
identify user needs and technological opportunities for meeting those
needs, identify a target architecture, or complete a plan for
transitioning to that target architecture. NWCG officials explained
that "to successfully implement anything across two departments, five
federal agencies, and 50 states is difficult and takes years of
planning and preparation.":
Further, once it is developed, it is not clear how this enterprise
architecture would be linked to the interagency geospatial strategic
plan, the interagency IRM strategy, or the different agencies'
investment control processes.
Given the complexity of interagency wildland fire operations, it is
clear that effectively managing IT (including geospatial IT) in support
of the wildland fire mission is a challenging task. However, it is also
clear that without senior-level endorsement and clear plans for
achieving results, efforts to address geospatial IT challenges and to
improve IT management may never be successful. Until effective
management of information resources and technology in support of the
wildland fire mission becomes a management priority, the wildland fire
community will likely continue to face significant challenges in
effectively using geospatial technologies.
New National Efforts to Improve the Use of Geospatial Information Are
Promising, but Challenges to Effective Data Sharing Remain:
Effectively using geospatial information is of interest beyond the
wildland fire management community. Detailed, accurate, and accessible
geospatial information is critical in addressing homeland security and
national preparedness, supporting our transportation infrastructure,
managing natural resources, and performing the national census--among
other activities--and the federal government has long recognized
problems in duplicative collections of geospatial data.
We recently reported that the federal government has tried for years to
reduce duplicative geospatial data collection by coordinating
geospatial activities both within and outside the federal
government.[Footnote 14] In 1953, the Bureau of the Budget first issued
its Circular A-16, encouraging expeditious surveying and mapping
activities across all levels of government and avoidance of duplicative
efforts. In 1990, the Office of Management and Budget revised this
circular to establish a Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC),
chaired by the Department of the Interior, to promote coordinated use,
sharing, and dissemination of geospatial data nationwide. In 1994, an
executive order called for coordinating geographic data acquisition and
access through a National Spatial Data Infrastructure.[Footnote 15] The
order defined this infrastructure as the technology, policies,
standards, and human resources necessary to acquire, process, store,
distribute, and improve the utilization of geospatial data. In 2002,
the Office of Management and Budget issued revised guidance for
agencies that create, use, or store geospatial data and established a
coordinated approach to the National Spatial Data
Infrastructure.[Footnote 16] Additionally, the E-Government Act of 2002
called for common protocols for GIS in order to reduce redundant data
collection and information, and to promote collaboration and use of
standards for government geographic information.[Footnote 17] Most
recently, the Office of Management and Budget issued guidance on
implementing the act.[Footnote 18]
Various efforts are now under way to implement this guidance and
legislation. Under the framework of the National Spatial Data
Infrastructure, the FGDC coordinates efforts to develop national
standards for geospatial data, develop a national framework for sharing
geospatial data collections, and establish a portal on the Internet--
called the Geospatial One-Stop initiative--for accessing geospatial
information.
The status of these efforts follows.
* Geospatial Data Standards. FGDC is developing standards for data
documentation, collection, and exchange so that data can be shared
across state and local boundaries on many different hardware platforms
and with many different software programs. To date, FGDC has
established 20 different standards, including standards for classifying
vegetation and for documenting information about the collected data,
called metadata.
* National Geospatial Data Clearinghouse. The clearinghouse is a
decentralized system of Internet servers that contain field-level
descriptions or metadata of available digital geospatial data. The
clearinghouse allows individual agencies, consortia, and
geographically defined communities to coordinate and promote the use of
their available geospatial data. Currently, the FGDC Clearinghouse
server connects to over 250 nodes around the world.
* Geospatial One-Stop. One of 25 high-profile Office of Management and
Budget-sponsored e-government initiatives, this project builds upon the
data clearinghouse to develop an Internet portal for one-stop access to
geospatial data. This effort is expected to develop national geospatial
data standards, increase the inventory of data holdings, and encourage
greater coordination among federal, state, and local agencies about
existing and planned geospatial projects. The Department of the
Interior expects to complete this initiative in early 2004.
While these initiatives hold promise, much remains to be done to
achieve effective sharing of geospatial data. We recently reported that
progress has been made on these initiatives, but that achieving the
goals of the National Spatial Data Infrastructure remains a formidable
challenge.[Footnote 19] Despite a series of mandates and directives
over many years requiring the use of standards and cooperation among
federal agencies and other entities, not all governmental entities are
fully cooperating on a nationwide basis. As a result, significant
geographic data standardization and data sharing have not been
realized. We also noted that a much more substantial effort will be
required to attain the vision of seamless integration of GIS data
nationwide. Specifically, existing draft standards may need further
revision, and more extensive coordination efforts may be required to
ensure broad adoption of the standards at all levels of government.
Further, attaining this goal is likely to require a continuing effort
over an extended period of time. Clearly, compliance with the mandate
of the E-Government Act will advance the goal of obtaining standardized
geographic data.
Although these national efforts are not at the level of detail that the
wildland fire community needs for fire-related geospatial data
standards, it will be important that the efforts are coordinated. As
the interagency wildland fire community moves forward with its plans to
develop an overall strategy for geospatial information technology and
data standards, it will be important to incorporate national data
standards, to participate in national initiatives such as the
Geospatial One-Stop, and to comply with the purpose and requirements of
the E-Government Act.
Conclusions:
The federal wildland fire management community is using a variety of
different geospatial technologies for such activities as identifying
dangerous fuels, assessing fire risks, detecting and fighting fires,
and restoring fire-damaged lands. These technologies run the gamut from
satellite and aerial imaging, to the Global Positioning System, to
geographic information systems, to specialized fire models.
Local land managers and incident teams often acquire, collect, and
develop geospatial information and technologies to meet their specific
needs, resulting in a hodgepodge of incompatible and duplicative data
and tools. This problem is echoed throughout the fire community: Those
who work with different aspects of fire management commonly cite
concerns with unavailable or incompatible geospatial data, duplicative
systems, lack of equipment and infrastructure to access geospatial
information, inconsistency in the training of GIS specialists, and
ineffective use of new products and technologies. These challenges
illustrate the need for a new, integrated, strategic approach to
managing information systems and data in the wildland fire community.
Different teams within the National Wildfire Coordinating Group have
proposed developing an interagency geospatial strategy to help define
and plan how to address geospatial challenges, drafted an interagency
IRM strategy to identify high-level goals, and proposed developing an
interagency enterprise architecture to more effectively manage
information resources and technology. However, the plan to develop a
geospatial strategy has not been approved, and the draft IRM strategy
lacks detailed activities and schedules for accomplishing key
objectives. Further, the NWCG team responsible for developing the
architecture has not yet begun the effort, and the initiative lacks the
senior management endorsement, the detailed plans and schedules, and
the link to an investment control process that are critical to any
architecture's success.
Looking beyond the wildland fire community, effective use of geospatial
information is a national priority. The federal government has been
working for years to use geospatial data more effectively and
efficiently. New initiatives to develop nationwide standards, a
geospatial data clearinghouse, and an Internet portal for accessing
geospatial data holdings offer much promise. However, significant
challenges remain. It will be important, as NWCG moves forward with its
efforts to develop an interagency geospatial strategy, an interagency
IRM strategy, and an interagency enterprise architecture, that these
efforts comply with the requirements of the E-Government Act and
incorporate national standards for geospatial data.
Recommendations:
In order to better manage the use of geospatial information in support
of wildland fire management, we recommend that the Secretaries of
Agriculture and the Interior direct the Wildland Fire Leadership
Council to endorse and oversee the National Wildfire Coordinating
Group's efforts to develop an interagency geospatial strategy for
effectively using geospatial information technologies in all phases of
wildland fire management. We also recommend that this geospatial
strategy:
* address challenges to effectively using geospatial technologies,
including issues associated with data, systems, infrastructure,
staffing, and the use of new products;
* establish deliverables and milestones for completing key initiatives;
and:
* be incorporated in interagency efforts to improve IT management,
including the interagency IRM strategy and the interagency enterprise
architecture effort.
In order to ensure effective interagency IT management, we recommend
that the Secretaries of Agriculture and the Interior immediately
endorse development of an interagency IRM strategy and an enterprise
architecture for wildland fire management. Further, we recommend that
the Secretaries ensure senior-level oversight by directing the Wildland
Fire Leadership Council to oversee the National Wildfire Coordinating
Group's efforts to:
* establish detailed plans and schedules for implementing the
interagency IRM strategy for wildland fire management;
* establish a detailed plan for developing the interagency enterprise
architecture for wildland fire management, and ensure that it includes
clear interim steps and implementation milestones;
* ensure that the interagency geospatial strategic plan and the
interagency IRM strategy are integrated with the enterprise
architecture for wildland fire management;
* establish a link between the architecture and the investment control
processes at the land management agencies; and:
* ensure that the architecture incorporates E-Government Act
requirements and national standards for geospatial data.
Agency Comments:
We provided a draft of this report to the Secretaries of Agriculture
and the Interior for review and comment. The departments provided a
consolidated, written response to our draft report, signed by the Under
Secretary, Natural Resources and the Environment, Department of
Agriculture, and the Assistant Secretary, Policy, Management and
Budget, Department of the Interior. The departments' response is
included in appendix VI of this report. The departments agreed with the
report's conclusions and recommendations, and noted that developing an
interagency IRM strategy and interagency enterprise architecture is an
ambitious undertaking. They stated that it makes sense to incorporate
our recommendations into ongoing agency and departmental e-government
enterprise architecture strategies, and that doing so will enable them
to modernize various lines of business in manageable components. The
departments also stated that as a result of these initiatives, the
agencies will gain incremental integration of information and shared
use of information technology, but noted that these improvements will
be both time and resource intensive.
The departments commented that our findings will be discussed by the
Wildland Fire Leadership Council at their October 2003 meeting and
that, based on that discussion and direction provided by the Council,
staff from the two departments will be tasked with developing an action
plan to address our findings and the broader issue of geospatial needs
for wildland fire management. The departments also stated that the
recommendations we provided will help the departments move forward to
establish a better coordinated, interagency architecture for geospatial
wildland fire management information requirements. The departments also
provided technical corrections, which we have incorporated as
appropriate.
We are sending notification of this report to the Chairman and Ranking
Minority Members of the Subcommittee on Public Lands and Forests,
Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources; the Subcommittee on
Forests and Forest Health, House Committee on Resources; and other
interested congressional committees. We will also send notification of
this report to the Secretary of Agriculture; the Secretary of the
Interior; the Chief of the Forest Service; the Directors of the Bureau
of Land Management, the National Park Service, and the Fish and
Wildlife Service; the Deputy Commissioner, Bureau of Indian Affairs;
the Director, Office of Management and Budget; and other interested
parties. In addition, this report will be available at no charge on
GAO's Web site at www.gao.gov.
If you have any questions on matters discussed in this report, please
contact me at (202) 512-9286 or Colleen Phillips, Assistant Director,
at (202) 512-6326. We can also be reached by E-mail at pownerd@gao.gov
and phillipsc@gao.gov, respectively. Other contacts and key
contributors to this report are listed in appendix VII.
David A. Powner
Director (Acting), Information Technology Management Issues:
Signed by David A. Powner:
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology:
Our objectives were to (1) identify key geospatial information
technologies for addressing different aspects of wildland fire
management; (2) summarize key challenges to the effective use of
geospatial technologies in wildland fire management; and (3) identify
national opportunities to improve the effective use of geospatial
technologies. To accomplish these objectives, we focused our review on
five key federal agencies that are responsible for wildland fire
management on public lands: the Department of Agriculture's Forest
Service and the Department of the Interior's National Park Service,
Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bureau of
Indian Affairs. To address the final objective, we also reviewed
national efforts to improve the use of geospatial information by the
Office of Management and Budget and the Federal Geographic Data
Committee (FGDC).
To identify key geospatial information technologies for addressing
different aspects of wildland fire management, we assessed policies,
plans, and reports on wildland fire management and technical documents
on geospatial technologies. We assessed information on Forest Service
and Interior efforts to develop and use geospatial technologies. We
also interviewed officials with the Forest Service and the Interior,
interagency organizations, commercial vendors, and selected states to
determine the characteristics and uses of different geospatial
technologies in supporting different phases of wildland fire
management. In addition, we met with officials of other federal
agencies, including the Department of the Interior's U.S. Geological
Survey, the Department of Defense's National Imagery and Mapping
Agency, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the
Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, and the Department of Homeland Security's Federal
Emergency Management Agency, to identify their efforts to develop
geospatial information products in support of wildland fire management.
To compile a list of geospatial applications used in support of
wildland fire management, we identified five inventories of software
models, applications, and tools used to support wildland fire
activities. We combined the five inventories to compile a more complete
list of applications, and we added geospatial applications that were
not on any of the inventories. We learned about these other
applications through discussions with agency officials and by searching
Forest Service and Interior Web sites. Additionally, Forest Service and
Interior officials provided input on which applications have geospatial
components and provided supporting information where it was available.
We did not validate the accuracy of the information in the five
separate inventories.
To summarize key challenges to the effective use and sharing of
geospatial technologies, we reviewed key reports and studies on these
challenges. These include the following:
Burchfield, James A., Theron A. Miller, Lloyd Queen, Joe Frost, Dorothy
Albright, and David DelSordo. Investigation of Geospatial Support of
Incident Management. National Center for Landscape Fire Analysis at the
University of Montana. November 25, 2002.
Committee on Earth Observation Satellites, Disaster Management Support
Group. The Use of Earth Observing Satellites for Hazard Support:
Assessments & Scenarios. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, n.d.
Department of Agriculture (Forest Service) and Department of Interior.
Developing an Interagency, Landscape-scale Fire Planning Analysis and
Budget Tool. n.d. [December 2001].
Fairbanks, Frank, Elizabeth Hill, Patrick Kelly, Lyle Laverty, Keith F.
Mulrooney, Charlie Philpot, and Charles Wise. Wildfire Suppression:
Strategies for Containing Costs. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of
Public Administration, September 2002.
Fairbanks, Frank, Henry Gardner, Elizabeth Hill, Keith Mulrooney,
Charles Philpot, Karl Weick, and Charles Wise. Managing Wildland Fire:
Enhancing Capacity to Implement the Federal Interagency Policy.
Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Public Administration, December
2001.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Wildland Fire
Management: Some Information Needs and Opportunities. Working paper,
National Hazards Information Strategy, July 2002.
National Wildfire Coordinating Group. Information Resource Management
Strategy Project: Wildland Fire Business Model. National Interagency
Fire Center. August 1996.
National Wildfire Coordinating Group, Information Resource Management
Working Team, Geospatial Task Group. Geospatial Technology for Incident
Support: A White Paper. April 12, 2002.
We also interviewed federal officials from interagency wildland fire
groups, including the national fire directors, the National Wildfire
Coordinating Group's (NWCG) Information Resource Management (IRM)
working team, NWCG's IRM program management office, the IRM working
team's geospatial task group, and the Wildland Fire Leadership Council
to discuss challenges and ongoing efforts to address these challenges.
In addition, we reviewed postfire reports on the Hayman, Biscuit, and
Cerro Grande fires to identify how geospatial technologies were used on
these fires and to evaluate any challenges the incident teams may have
encountered in using these technologies. We attended federal and
commercial conferences on geospatial information technologies,
interviewed representatives from selected states and commercial
vendors, and observed group discussions on challenges in effectively
using these technologies and plans for addressing them.
To identify national opportunities to improve the effective use of
geospatial technologies to address wildland fire management, we
identified key national efforts to set geospatial data standards, to
reduce duplication of effort, and to increase collaboration among the
federal government, states, and private entities. Specifically, we
evaluated the history of legislation and guidance from the Office of
Management and Budget on geospatial information, and identified the
status and plans of efforts under the National Spatial Data
Infrastructure, including FGDC's efforts to develop geospatial data
standards, a data clearinghouse, and an Internet portal (called
Geospatial One-Stop). We discussed the status of these initiatives with
the Office of Management and Budget and committee officials. We also
reviewed the land management agencies' progress in implementing and
enforcing key elements of these national efforts by assessing the FGDC
progress reports and by determining the status of the agencies' efforts
to adopt geospatial data policies.
We conducted our review at the federal agencies' headquarters in
Washington, D.C.; the Forest Service's Remote Sensing Applications
Center and Geospatial Service and Technology Center in Salt Lake City,
Utah; the U.S. Geological Survey's Rocky Mountain Mapping Center in
Denver, Colorado; the U.S. Geological Survey's Earth Resources
Observation Systems Data Center in Sioux Falls, South Dakota; the
National Interagency Fire Center in Boise, Idaho; and the Forest
Service's Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory in
Missoula, Montana. We conducted our work between October 2002 and
September 2003 in accordance with generally accepted government
auditing standards.
Appendix II: Major Wildland Fire Policies, Plans, Reports, and
Initiatives:
The following table provides a chronology of the policies, plans,
reports, and initiatives that form the national approach to wildland
fire management over the past decade.
[See PDF for image]
Sources: Department of the Interior, Department of Agriculture.
[A] U.S. General Accounting Office, Western National Forests: A
Cohesive Strategy Is Needed to Address Catastrophic Wildfire Threats,
GAO/RCED-99-65 (Washington, D.C.: Apr. 2, 1999).
[End of table]
Appendix III: Federal, State, and Local Entities with Land Management,
Technology, or Other Fire-Related Roles:
Under the National Fire Plan, five federal land management agencies
lead the efforts to develop wildland fire policies and initiatives.
However, many other federal agencies and nonfederal associations also
have a role in wildland fire management. The federal entities include
agencies that manage other federal lands; agencies that research,
manage, or use technologies that can aid in wildland fire management;
and agencies with other fire-related responsibilities. The nonfederal
entities include key state, local, and international organizations,
which collaborate with the federal agencies on wildland fire
management. Key federal, state, and local organizations and their roles
in wildland fire management are identified below.
Federal Departments and Agencies:
Five federal agencies have key responsibilities for managing more than
90 percent of all federal lands.[Footnote 20]
* The Department of Agriculture's Forest Service manages 191 million
acres of national forests and grasslands; its mission is to sustain the
health, diversity, and productivity of these areas to meet the needs of
present and future generations.
* The Department of the Interior's Bureau of Land Management manages
261 million acres of public domain lands. Its mission is to sustain the
health, diversity, and productivity of these public lands for the use
and enjoyment of present and future generations. Most of the land
managed by Bureau of Land Management is located west of the
Mississippi.
* The Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs administers
and manages 56 million acres of land that is held in trust by the
United States for American Indians, Indian tribes, and Alaska natives.
Its mission includes developing forestlands, leasing assets on these
lands, directing agricultural programs, protecting water and land
rights, developing and maintaining infrastructure, providing for
health, human services, and economic development.
* The Department of the Interior's Fish and Wildlife Service manages 93
million acres of national wildlife refuges and wetland areas. Its
mission is to work with others to conserve, protect, and enhance fish,
wildlife, and plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of
the American people.
* The Department of the Interior's National Park Service administers
over 80 million acres of national parks, monuments, historic sites,
natural areas, and other federal lands. Its mission is to preserve the
natural and cultural resources and values of the national park system
for the enjoyment, education, and inspiration of present and future
generations.
In addition to the five federal land management agencies, three other
federal departments manage extensive tracts of federal land.
* The Department of Defense manages about 38 million acres at bases and
installations around the country and has fire management responsibility
for these lands.
* The Bureau of Reclamation manages about 9 million acres of land.
* The Department of Energy manages about 2.4 million acres of land.
Other federal entities research, manage, or use technologies that can
aid in wildland fire management.
* The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, through its Earth
Science Enterprise research and development efforts, partners with
federal agencies with fire management responsibilities to provide
satellite remote sensing images and other science and data products.
* The Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration operates satellites, manages the daily processing and
distribution of data and images produced by these satellites; conducts
research, develops innovative technologies and observation systems, and
prepares weather and fire weather forecasts--all of which provide
useful information to fire management officials who plan and manage
wildland fires.
* The Department of Defense's National Imagery and Mapping Agency
provides imagery and geospatial information in support of the national
security objectives of the United States. At the request of the
National Interagency Fire Center, through the Forest Service, the
agency uses multiple sources of imagery and geospatial data to provide
map products to assist the fire community with fire suppression
efforts.
* The Department of the Interior's U.S. Geological Survey contributes
to wildland fire management by conducting fire-related research to meet
the varied needs of the fire management community and to understand the
role of fire in the landscape. This research includes fire management
support, studies of postfire effects, and a wide range of studies on
fire history and ecology. In addition, the U.S. Geological Survey
supports the wildland fire community by providing earth science
information through (1) receipt and archiving of remotely sensed land
data and (2) geographical scientific information that describes and
interprets the nation's landscape.
Other federal entities also have fire-related responsibilities.
* The Department of Homeland Security's Federal Emergency Management
Agency, the lead agency for emergency management in the federal
government, provides financial assistance for the mitigation,
management, and control of fires burning on publicly or privately owned
forests or grasslands. The agency also provides maps of geologic and
flood hazards to support fire management.
* The Environmental Protection Agency develops and enforces regulations
regarding the environment, including the effects of wildland fire on
air quality.
State, Local, and Other Associations and Committees:
Many state, local, international, and private organizations participate
in wildland fire management.
* The National Association of State Foresters, the largest nonfederal
firefighting partner, is a nonprofit organization that represents the
directors of the state forestry agencies from all 50 states, 8 U.S.
territories, and the District of Columbia. The state foresters provide
management assistance and protection services for over two-thirds of
the nation's forests. The association is a member of both the National
Wildfire Coordinating Group and the Wildland Fire Leadership Council.
* The Intertribal Timber Council is a nationwide consortium of Indian
Tribes, Alaska Native Corporations, and individuals dedicated to
improving the management of natural resources of importance to Native
American communities. The Council is a member of both the National
Wildfire Coordinating Group and the Wildland Fire Leadership Council.
* The National Fire Protection Association's mission is to reduce the
worldwide burden of fire and other hazards on the quality of life by
providing and advocating scientifically based consensus codes and
standards, research, training, and education. The association's
membership totals more than 75,000 individuals from around the world
and more than 80 national trade and professional organizations.
* The Fire Control Officers Group is an umbrella organization
consisting of fire control officers from the forest fire management
agencies in all Australian states and New Zealand, with additional
representation from industry, research, and education. The group
develops and maintains international relationships with fire management
agencies in the United States.
* The National Governors' Association deals with issues of public
policy and governance relating to the states. The association's ongoing
mission is to support the work of the governors by providing a
bipartisan forum to help shape and implement national policy and to
solve state problems.
* The National Association of Counties seeks to represent the nation's
3,066 counties; its membership totals more than 2,000 counties,
representing over 80 percent of the nation's population. As a member of
the Wildland Fire Leadership Council and in working with the National
Association of State Foresters, the association is a lead collaborator
on such wildland fire issues as (1) assessing the training, equipment,
and safety awareness of and services provided by rural, volunteer, and
other firefighters who work in the wildland urban interface and (2)
annually selecting fuel treatment and ecosystem restoration projects
within jurisdictions.
* The Western Governors' Association, composed of the governors of 18
states and 3 islands in the Pacific, addresses important policy and
governance issues in the West--in particular wildland fire issues,
because of the prevalence and severity of fires and grassland fires in
these states.
* The International Association of Fire Chiefs is a network of more
than 12,000 chief fire and emergency officers. The association's
mission is to provide leadership to chief fire officers and managers of
emergency services organizations. The International Association of Fire
Chiefs also prepares awareness and training information on the use of
minimum impact suppression activities.
* The National Volunteer Fire Council, a nonprofit membership
association, represents the interest of the volunteer fire, emergency
medical, and rescue services.
* The International Association of Wildland Fire is a nonprofit,
professional association representing members of the global wildland
fire community. The purpose of the association is to facilitate
communication and provide leadership for the wildland fire community.
* The Nature Conservancy's mission is to preserve the plants, animals,
and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on earth
by protecting the lands and waters they need to survive. One of the
Nature Conservancy's five priority conservation initiatives is to play
a leading role in restoring fire-altered ecosystems by working to
counter the threats posed to both human and natural communities where
the role of fire is severely out of balance.
* The Wilderness Society seeks to save, protect, and restore America's
wilderness areas through the combination of scientific expertise,
analysis, advocacy, and education. The Wilderness Society's Wildland
Fire Program is an interdisciplinary program designed to return fire to
fire-dependent ecosystems in a socially acceptable manner.
Appendix IV: Remote Sensing Systems:
Remote sensing systems observe data in one or more bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum, including the visible, near-infrared, mid-
infrared, thermal infrared, and microwave bands. Data from different
bands provide different kinds of information. For example, data
observed in the thermal infrared band can identify heat sources that
are not observable in the visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
When data are collected from multiple bands or from multiple channels
within a band, a more sophisticated analysis can be performed.
Remote sensors are often characterized by the type of observations they
perform and their resulting products. Common types of sensors include
panchromatic imaging sensors, multispectral imaging sensors,
hyperspectral imaging sensors, radio detection and ranging (radar)
sensors, and light detection and ranging (LIDAR) sensors. A definition
of each type of sensor follows.
* Panchromatic imaging sensors collect data in a single band of the
electromagnetic spectrum. These data are then processed to provide a
black and white image.
* Multispectral imaging sensors collect data in multiple,
noncontiguous, wide-wavelength bands, which are then combined to create
color images.
* Hyperspectral imaging sensors collect data in multiple, contiguous,
narrow-wavelength bands. Because different materials absorb and reflect
light differently, analysis of detailed hyperspectral data can identify
different materials, minerals, and species.
* Radar sensors emit a high-frequency radio wave to determine a remote
object's velocity, position, or other characteristic by analyzing the
radio wave reflected from the remote object. Radar sensors can acquire
images through clouds, fog, and darkness.
* LIDAR sensors emit a light beam and analyze the reflected and
scattered light that is returned to the collection instrument. This
measured change enables LIDAR to penetrate a forest canopy to map the
floor and can aid in the determination of topographic elevations.
Remote sensing systems can be placed on satellite and aerial platforms.
These platforms can be government-owned or commercial. Currently, there
are numerous government-owned and commercial remote sensing systems--
used on both satellite and aerial platforms. Table 2 identifies
characteristics of several different remote sensing systems that are
currently operational. Key characteristics that help distinguish one
system from another include image resolution (the size of the objects
that can be depicted in an image) and revisit rate (the rate at which a
platform returns to an area).
Table 2: Characteristics of Selected Remote Sensing Systems:
[See PDF for image]
Sources: Forest Service, Remote Sensing Applications Center, GAO.
[End of table]
Appendix V: Examples of Applications with Geospatial Components
Supporting Wildland Fire Management:
The following tables provide examples of different applications with
geospatial information components that are used in support of wildland
fire management activities. Table 3 provides examples of operational
applications, and table 4 provides examples of developmental
applications.
Table 3: Examples of Operational Applications:
[See PDF for image]
Sources: NWCG, FS, BLM, GAO.
[End of table]
Table 4: Examples of Developmental Applications:
[See PDF for image]
Sources: NWCG, FS, BLM, GAO.
[End of table]
Appendix VI: Comments from the Departments of Agriculture and the
Interior:
THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR:
August 21, 2003:
David A. Powner:
Director (Acting), Information Technology Management Issues:
United States General Accounting Office 441 G. Street N. W.
Washington, D.C. 20548:
Dear Director Powner:
Thank you for the opportunity to review and comment on the draft copy
of GAO-03-1047, "Geospatial Information; Technologies Hold Promise for
Wildland Fire Management, but Challenges Remain.":
Overall, the Departments agree with the report conclusions and
recommendations. Minor factual and technical corrections were
identified and conveyed to the GAO investigators during conference
calls on August 20, 2003, for the Department of the Interior and on
August 21, 2003, for the Department of Agriculture.
In reference to the conclusions and recommendations provided in the
report, we offer the following comments:
* The GAO recommendations involve some ambitious undertakings, such as
developing an interagency IRM strategy and interagency enterprise
architecture. Both of these significantly support not only wildland
fire management but also every other line of business in which the
agencies and Departments are involved. It makes sense to incorporate
the GAO recommendations into ongoing agency and Departmental e-Gov
enterprise architecture strategies. This would enable us to modernize
our various lines of business in manageable components, using
enterprise architecture as a framework and tool. As a result, agencies
would gain incremental enterprise-wide integration of information and
shared use of information technology. These enhancements will, however,
be both time and resource intensive.
* While the lack of comprehensive Information Technology (IT) and
enterprise architecture contribute as potential barriers to more
effective use of geospatial applications, experience demonstrates that
core issues also include data availability and associated funding
mechanisms. The use or non-use of specific technologies is not the
issue. The
central concern is whether the delivery of appropriate information can
be made in a timely, cost effective manner to address specific business
driven needs.
* Information technology and geospatial information management have
evolved both independently of and within wildland fire management. The
successful use of geospatial technologies in wildland fire management
requires the existence of basic geospatial technologies, data, and
skills within land management agencies. Geospatial information supports
all disciplines within these agencies. The applicability and utility of
these tools for aiding in decision-making and achieving wildland fire
management objectives makes them essential.
Inconsistencies among agencies in terms of data content, availability,
systems, and infrastructure are often beyond the control of the
agencies' wildland fire management programs. This is particularly true
with data standards. Wildland fire perimeter data standards will be
easy to complete compared to interagency standards for roads,
vegetation, and other crucial wildland fire mission data. There must be
disciplined, purposeful cooperation outside of wildland fire management
programs within the agencies, as well as with state and local
governments, to have effective geospatial support for wildland fire
management.
* Most of the recommendations listed in the report are currently under
consideration by the wildland fire agencies. These GAO findings will be
presented to the Wildland Fire Leadership Council at their October
2003, meeting. Based upon discussions and:
direction provided by the Council, staff from the two departments will
be tasked with developing an action plan to address the GAO findings
and the broader issue of geospatial needs for wildland fire management.
The Departments continually evaluate new and emerging technologies in
their attempt to apply the best practices to support their missions.
This is particularly true in the wildland fire management program where
public and firefighter safety and the health of forests and rangelands
is highly dependant upon multiple layers of data that must be quickly
and accurately translated into information for decision making. In this
effort, the wildland fire management community has been a leader. The
recommendations provided by the GAO will help the Departments move
forward to establish a better coordinated, interagency architecture for
geospatial wildland fire management information requirements.
P. LYNN SCARLETT:
Assistant Secretary
Policy, Management and Budget:
U.S. Department of the Interior:
Mark Rey:
Under Secretary
Natural Resources and the Environment:
U.S. Department of Agriculture:
Appendix VII: GAO Contacts and Acknowledgments:
GAO Contacts:
David A. Powner, (202) 512-9286, (303) 572-7316 or pownerd@gao.gov:
Colleen M. Phillips, (202) 512-6326 or phillipsc@gao.gov:
Acknowledgements:
In addition to those named above, Barbara Collier, Neil Doherty, Joanne
Fiorino, Richard Hung, Chester Joy, Anjalique Lawrence, Tammi Nguyen,
Megan Secrest, Karl Seifert, Lisa Warnecke, and Glenda Wright made key
contributions to this report.
Glossary:
The following terms are used in the geospatial and wildland fire
communities.
Aerial Photography:
Taking photographs from the air, such as a photograph
of part of the Earth's surface, with a camera mounted in an aircraft;
usually involves taking strips of overlapping prints for mapping
purposes.
Burn Severity:
A qualitative assessment of the heat pulse directed toward
the ground during a fire. Burn severity relates to soil heating, large
fuel and duff consumption, consumption of the litter and organic layer
beneath trees and isolated shrubs, and mortality of buried plant parts.
Burned Area Rehabilitation:
The full range of postfire activities to rehabilitate and
restore fire-damaged lands, including protection of public health and
safety.
Digital Aerial Data:
A computer representation of imagery acquired from
an aircraft. This type of data is produced either by digitizing aerial
photographs or through direct acquisition by electronic sensors such as
digital cameras or Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) thermal imaging
sensors.
Duff: The layer of decomposing organic materials lying below the litter
layer of freshly fallen twigs, needles, and leaves and immediately
above the mineral soil.
Fire Prevention: Activities, including education, engineering,
enforcement and administration, that are directed at reducing the
number of wildfires, the costs of suppression, and fire-caused damages
to resources and property.
Fire Suppression: All work and activities connected with fire-
extinguishing operations, beginning with discovery and continuing until
the fire is completely extinguished.
Fuel: Combustible material.
Fuel Condition:
Relative flammability of fuel as determined by fuel type
and environmental conditions.
Fuel Reduction:
Manipulation or removal of fuels to reduce the likelihood
of ignition, to lessen the potential damage and resistance to control,
or both (e.g., lopping, chipping, crushing, piling, and burning).
Fuel Treatment: (See fuel reduction.):
Geographic or Geospatial Information:
Information about a phenomenon that can be referenced to a specific
location relative to the earth's surface.
Geographic Information System (GIS): A system of computer software,
hardware, and data used to manipulate, analyze, and graphically
display a potentially wide array of information associated with
geographic locations.
Typically, a GIS is used for handling maps of one kind or another.
These maps might be represented as several different layers, where each
layer holds data about a particular kind of feature (e.g., roads). Each
feature is linked to a position on the graphical image of a map.
Geographic or Geospatial Information Technology: A broad term
encompassing all forms of technology to gather, display, sample, and
process geographic or geospatial information, including in particular
GIS, remote sensing, and use of the Global Positioning System.
Global Positioning System (GPS): A system of navigational satellites
operated by the U.S. Department of Defense and available for civilian
use. The system can track objects anywhere in the world with an
accuracy of approximately 40 feet.
Hyperspectral Imaging: Type of imaging that records many tens of bands
of imagery at very narrow bandwidths.
Infrared Imaging: Producing images using the thermal infrared spectral
band; used for fire detection, mapping, and hotspot identification.
Initial Attack: The actions taken by the first responders to arrive at
a wildfire to protect lives and property, and prevent further extension
of the fire.
LIDAR (From "light detection and ranging."): An instrument capable of
measuring distance and direction to an object by emitting timed pulses
of light in a measured direction based on the time between when a pulse
is emitted and when its echo is received. Three-dimensional information
is computed by relating these distances and direction measurements to
the location and orientation of the instrument. Airborne LIDAR
instruments are used to develop three-dimensional data, such as digital
elevation models, tree and building heights, and feature geometry.
Multispectral Imaging: Acquiring optical images in more than one
spectral band.
Preparedness: Condition or degree of being ready to cope with a
potential fire situation.
Prescribed Fire: Controlled application of fire to wildland fuels, in
either their natural or modified state, under specified environmental
conditions, which allows the fire to be confined to a predetermined
area and produces the fire behavior and fire characteristics required
to attain planned fire treatment and resource management objectives.
Presuppression: Activities in advance of fire occurrence to ensure
effective suppression action. Includes planning the organization,
recruiting and training, procuring equipment and supplies, maintaining
fire equipment and fire control improvements, and negotiating
cooperative or mutual aid agreements.
Prevention: Activities directed at reducing the incidence of fires,
including public education, law enforcement, personal contact, and
reduction of fuel hazards (fuels management).
Radar(From "radio detection and ranging."): An instrument that emits a
narrow beam of electromagnetic pulses (radio waves) in a specific
direction and measures the time, intensity, or other characteristics of
the energy that returns from targets or objects. Radar imagery can be
obtained at night or through clouds and smoke. Radar images provide a
unique visual impression, and advanced analysis of radar imagery
usually requires specific experience, knowledge, and facilities.
Rehabilitation: The activities necessary to repair damage or
disturbance caused by a wildfire or the wildfire suppression activity.
Remote Sensing: Process of determining properties of objects without
contact, usually by measuring and recording images based on the
electromagnetic energy that has interacted with the objects. Remote
sensing also involves the manipulation of images to derive useful
information. Remote sensing traditionally involves aerial photography
but now includes many electronic sensors on both airborne and space-
based platforms.
Satellite: A space-based platform for sensors that measure, image,
receive, and transmit data from an orbital path above the earth.
Spatial Resolution: Spatial resolution is a measure of the size of the
smallest feature that can be distinguished in an image. That is, in a
30-meter resolution image, one could discern objects 30 meters and
larger. Images with smaller discernable objects are considered to have
higher resolutions.
Suppression: All the work of extinguishing or confining a fire,
beginning with its discovery.
Thermal Imaging: (See infrared imaging.):
Wildfire: A fire occurring on wildland that is not meeting management
objectives and thus requires a suppression response.
Wildland: An area in which development is essentially nonexistent,
except for roads, railroads, power lines, and similar transportation
features, and structures, if any, are widely scattered.
Wildland Fire: Any fire occurring on the wildlands, regardless of
ignition source, damages, or benefits.
(310353):
FOOTNOTES
[1] Sec. 216, P.L. 107-347, December 17, 2002.
[2] U.S. General Accounting Office, Geographic Information Systems:
Challenges to Effective Data Sharing, GAO-03-874T (Washington, D.C.:
June 10, 2003).
[3] U.S. General Accounting Office, The National Fire Plan: Federal
Agencies Are Not Organized to Effectively and Efficiently Implement the
Plan, GAO-01-1022T (Washington, D.C.: July 31, 2001); Severe Wildland
Fires: Leadership and Accountability Needed to Reduce Risks to
Communities and Resources, GAO-02-259 (Washington, D.C.: Jan. 31,
2002); Wildland Fire Management: Improved Planning Will Help Agencies
Better Identify Fire-Fighting Preparedness Needs, GAO-02-158
(Washington, D.C.: Mar. 29, 2002).
[4] Frank Fairbanks, Henry Gardner, Elizabeth Hill, Keith Mulrooney,
Charles Philpot, Karl Weick, and Charles Wise, Managing Wildland Fire:
Enhancing Capacity to Implement the Federal Interagency Policy
(Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Public Administration, December
2001).
[5] For example, see Office of Management and Budget, Management of
Federal Information Resources, Circular No. A-130 (Washington, D.C.:
November 2000) and U.S. General Accounting Office, Executive Guide:
Improving Mission Performance through Strategic Information Management
and Technology: Learning from Leading Organizations, GAO/AIMD-94-115
(Washington, D.C.: May 1994).
[6] U.S. General Accounting Office, Information Technology: A Framework
for Assessing and Improving Enterprise Architecture Management (Version
1.1), GAO-03-584G (Washington, D.C.: April 2003).
[7] U.S. General Accounting Office, Information Technology Investment
Management: A Framework for Assessing and Improving Process Maturity
(Exposure Draft), GAO/AIMD-10.1.23 (Washington, D.C.: May 2000).
[8] See, for example, U.S. General Accounting Office, DOD Business
Systems Modernization: Improvements to Enterprise Architecture
Development and Implementation Efforts Needed, GAO-03-458 (Washington,
D.C.: February 2003); Information Technology: DLA Should Strengthen
Business Systems Modernization Architecture and Investment Activities,
GAO-01-631 (Washington, D.C.: June 2001); and Information Technology:
INS Needs to Better Manage the Development of Its Enterprise
Architecture, AIMD-00-212 (Washington, D.C.: August 2000).
[9] LIDAR sensors measure the reflection of emitted light;
hyperspectral sensors observe data in multiple contiguous channels of
the electromagnetic spectrum. A more detailed discussion of these and
other types of sensors is included in appendix IV.
[10] U.S. General Accounting Office, Wildland Fires: Better Information
Needed on Effectiveness of Emergency Stabilization and Rehabilitation
Treatments, GAO-03-430 (Washington, D.C.: Apr. 4, 2003).
[11] National Wildfire Coordinating Group, Information Resource
Management Strategy Project: Wildland Fire Business Model (National
Interagency Fire Center: August 1996).
[12] Frank Fairbanks, Elizabeth Hill, Patrick Kelly, Lyle Laverty,
Keith F. Mulrooney, Charlie Philpot, and Charles Wise, Wildfire
Suppression: Strategies for Containing Costs (Washington, D.C.:
National Academy of Public Administration, September 2002).
[13] Chief Information Officer Council, A Practical Guide to Federal
Enterprise Architecture, Version 1.0 (February 2001).
[14] U.S. General Accounting Office, Geographic Information Systems:
Challenges to Effective Data Sharing, GAO-03-874T (Washington, D.C.:
June 10, 2003).
[15] Executive Order 12906, Coordination of Geographic Data Acquisition
and Access: The National Spatial Data Infrastructure (Apr. 13, 1994).
[16] Office of Management and Budget, Coordination of Geographic
Information and Related Spatial Data Activities, Circular A-16 Revised
(Washington, D.C.: Aug. 19, 2002). The Circular applies to any agency
that collects, produces, acquires, maintains, distributes, uses, or
preserves paper maps or digital geospatial data to fulfill its mission.
[17] Sec. 216, P.L. 107-347, December 17, 2002.
[18] Office of Management and Budget Memorandum, "Implementation
Guidance for the E-Government Act of 2002," M-03-18 (Aug. 1, 2003).
[19] GAO-03-874T.
[20] Several of these agencies also provide scientific research,
technology, and products in support of the land management missions.
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