Energy and Water
Preliminary Observations on the Links between Water and Biofuels and Electricity Production Gao ID: GAO-09-862T July 9, 2009Water and energy are inexorably linked--energy is needed to pump, treat, and transport water and large quantities of water are needed to support the development of energy. However, both water and energy may face serious constraints as demand for these vital resources continues to rise. Two examples that demonstrate the link between water and energy are the cultivation and conversion of feedstocks, such as corn, switchgrass, and algae, into biofuels; and the production of electricity by thermoelectric power plants, which rely on large quantities of water for cooling during electricity generation. At the request of this committee, GAO has undertaken three ongoing studies focusing on the water-energy nexus related to (1) biofuels and water, (2) thermoelectric power plants and water, and (3) oil shale and water. For this testimony, GAO is providing key themes that have emerged from its work to date on the research and development and data needs with regard to the production of biofuels and electricity and their linkage with water. GAO's work on oil shale is in its preliminary stages and further information will be available on this aspect of the energy-water nexus later this year.
While the effects of producing corn-based ethanol on water supply and water quality are fairly well understood, less is known about the effects of the next generation of biofuel feedstocks. Corn cultivation for ethanol production can require from 7 to 321 gallons of water per gallon of ethanol produced, depending on where it is grown and how much irrigation is needed. Corn is also a relatively resource-intensive crop, requiring higher rates of fertilizer and pesticides than many other crops. In contrast, little is known about the effects of large-scale cultivation of next generation feedstocks, such as cellulosic crops. Since these feedstocks have not been grown commercially to date, there are little data on the cumulative water, nutrient, and pesticide needs of these crops and on the amount of these crops that could be harvested as a biofuel feedstock without compromising soil and water quality. Uncertainty also exists regarding the water supply impacts of converting cellulosic feedstocks into biofuels. While water usage in the corn-based ethanol conversion process has been declining and is currently estimated at 3 gallons of water per gallon of ethanol, the amount of water consumed in the conversion of cellulosic feedstocks is less defined and will depend on the process and on technological advancements that improve the efficiency with which water is used. Finally, additional research is needed on the storage and distribution of biofuels. For example, to overcome incompatibility issues between the ethanol and the current fueling and distribution infrastructure, research is needed on conversion technologies that can be used to produce renewable fuels capable of being used in the existing infrastructure. With regard to power plants, GAO has found that key efforts to reduce use of freshwater at power plants are under way but may not be fully captured in existing federal data. In particular, advanced cooling technologies that use air, not water, for cooling the plant, can sharply reduce or even eliminate the use of freshwater, thereby reducing the costs associated with procuring water. However, plants using these technologies may cost more to build and witness lower net electricity output--especially in hot, dry conditions. Nevertheless, a number of power plant developers in the United States have adopted advanced cooling technologies, but current federal data collection efforts may not fully document this emerging trend. Similarly, plants can use alternative water supplies such as treated waste water from municipal sewage plants to sharply reduce their use of freshwater. Use of these alternative water sources can also lower the costs associated with obtaining and using freshwater when freshwater is expensive, but pose other challenges, including requiring special treatment to avoid adverse effects on cooling equipment. Alternative water sources play an increasingly important role in reducing power plant reliance on freshwater, but federal data collection efforts do not systematically collect data on the use of these water sources by power plants. To help improve the use of alternatives to freshwater, in 2008, the Department of Energy awarded about $9 million to examine among other things, improving the performance of advanced cooling technologies. Such research is needed to help identify cost effective alternatives to traditional cooling technologies.
GAO-09-862T, Energy and Water: Preliminary Observations on the Links between Water and Biofuels and Electricity Production
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Testimony:
Before the Subcommittee on Energy and Environment, Committee on Science
and Technology, House of Representatives:
United States Government Accountability Office:
GAO:
For Release on Delivery:
Expected at 10:00 a.m. EDT:
Thursday, July 9, 2009:
Energy And Water:
Preliminary Observations on the Links between Water and Biofuels and
Electricity Production:
Statement of Anu Mittal, Director:
Natural Resources and Environment:
GAO-09-862T:
GAO Highlights:
Highlights of GAO-09-862T, a testimony before the Subcommittee on
Energy and Environment, Committee on Science and Technology, House of
Representatives.
Why GAO Did This Study:
Water and energy are inexorably linked”energy is needed to pump, treat,
and transport water and large quantities of water are needed to support
the development of energy. However, both water and energy may face
serious constraints as demand for these vital resources continues to
rise. Two examples that demonstrate the link between water and energy
are the cultivation and conversion of feedstocks, such as corn,
switchgrass, and algae, into biofuels; and the production of
electricity by thermoelectric power plants, which rely on large
quantities of water for cooling during electricity generation.
At the request of this committee, GAO has undertaken three ongoing
studies focusing on the water-energy nexus related to (1) biofuels and
water, (2) thermoelectric power plants and water, and (3) oil shale and
water. For this testimony, GAO is providing key themes that have
emerged from its work to date on the research and development and data
needs with regard to the production of biofuels and electricity and
their linkage with water. GAO‘s work on oil shale is in its preliminary
stages and further information will be available on this aspect of the
energy-water nexus later this year.
To conduct this work, GAO is reviewing laws, agency documents, and data
and is interviewing federal, state, and industry experts. GAO is not
making any recommendations at this time.
What GAO Found:
While the effects of producing corn-based ethanol on water supply and
water quality are fairly well understood, less is known about the
effects of the next generation of biofuel feedstocks. Corn cultivation
for ethanol production can require from 7 to 321 gallons of water per
gallon of ethanol produced, depending on where it is grown and how much
irrigation is needed. Corn is also a relatively resource-intensive
crop, requiring higher rates of fertilizer and pesticides than many
other crops. In contrast, little is known about the effects of large-
scale cultivation of next generation feedstocks, such as cellulosic
crops. Since these feedstocks have not been grown commercially to date,
there are little data on the cumulative water, nutrient, and pesticide
needs of these crops and on the amount of these crops that could be
harvested as a biofuel feedstock without compromising soil and water
quality. Uncertainty also exists regarding the water supply impacts of
converting cellulosic feedstocks into biofuels. While water usage in
the corn-based ethanol conversion process has been declining and is
currently estimated at 3 gallons of water per gallon of ethanol, the
amount of water consumed in the conversion of cellulosic feedstocks is
less defined and will depend on the process and on technological
advancements that improve the efficiency with which water is used.
Finally, additional research is needed on the storage and distribution
of biofuels. For example, to overcome incompatibility issues between
the ethanol and the current fueling and distribution infrastructure,
research is needed on conversion technologies that can be used to
produce renewable fuels capable of being used in the existing
infrastructure.
With regard to power plants, GAO has found that key efforts to reduce
use of freshwater at power plants are under way but may not be fully
captured in existing federal data. In particular, advanced cooling
technologies that use air, not water, for cooling the plant, can
sharply reduce or even eliminate the use of freshwater, thereby
reducing the costs associated with procuring water. However, plants
using these technologies may cost more to build and witness lower net
electricity output”especially in hot, dry conditions. Nevertheless, a
number of power plant developers in the United States have adopted
advanced cooling technologies, but current federal data collection
efforts may not fully document this emerging trend. Similarly, plants
can use alternative water supplies such as treated waste water from
municipal sewage plants to sharply reduce their use of freshwater. Use
of these alternative water sources can also lower the costs associated
with obtaining and using freshwater when freshwater is expensive, but
pose other challenges, including requiring special treatment to avoid
adverse effects on cooling equipment. Alternative water sources play an
increasingly important role in reducing power plant reliance on
freshwater, but federal data collection efforts do not systematically
collect data on the use of these water sources by power plants. To help
improve the use of alternatives to freshwater, in 2008, the Department
of Energy awarded about $9 million to examine among other things,
improving the performance of advanced cooling technologies. Such
research is needed to help identify cost effective alternatives to
traditional cooling technologies.
View [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-09-862T] or key
components. For more information, contact Anu Mittal at (202) 512-3841
or mittala@gao.gov.
[End of section]
Mr. Chairman and Members of the Subcommittee:
I am pleased to be here today to participate in your hearing on
technology research and development for the energy-water linkage often
referred to as the energy-water nexus. As you know, water and energy
are inexorably linked, mutually dependent, and each affects the other's
availability. Energy is needed to pump, treat, and transport water, and
large quantities of water are needed to support the development of
energy. Production of biofuels that may help reduce our dependency on
oil, and the cooling of power plants that today provide the electricity
we use, represent two examples where water supply is tied directly to
our ability to provide energy.
However, both water and energy are facing serious supply constraints.
Freshwater is increasingly in demand to meet the needs of
municipalities, farmers, industries, and the environment. Likewise,
rising demand for energy--fueled by both population growth and
expanding uses of energy--may soon outstrip our ability to supply it
with existing resources. Looking just at electricity, according to the
Energy Information Administration's (EIA) most recent Annual Energy
Outlook, 259 gigawatts of new generating capacity--the equivalent of
259 large coal-fired power plants--will be needed between 2007 and
2030. As the country's energy needs grow along with its population,
additional pressure will likely be put on our water resources.
Given the importance of water and energy, both the federal government
and state governments play key roles in monitoring, regulating,
collecting information, and supporting research on energy and water
issues. In general, state governments play a central role in overseeing
water availability and use by evaluating water supplies and permitting
water uses. However, while much of the authority governing water supply
and distribution lies with state and local governments, the federal
government also has a role in helping the country meet its energy needs
without damaging or depleting our supplies of freshwater. For example,
federal agencies, including the Department of Energy (DOE), have
provided data and analysis about water use for energy production, as
well as funded related research and development. These activities are
important to further our understanding of how to more efficiently use
such critical resources.
At the request of this committee, GAO currently has work under way
related to three aspects of the energy-water nexus--water use in the
production of biofuels, water use at thermoelectric power plants, and
water use in the extraction of oil from shale. We expect to release
reports on biofuels and thermoelectric power plants later this year.
For each study, the committee asked us to identify technologies that
could help reduce the amount of water needed to produce energy from
these sources. My testimony today discusses key themes we have
identified during our work to date on the two ongoing energy-water
nexus jobs that are furthest along, specifically (1) biofuels and water
use and (2) thermoelectric power plants and water use. Our work on oil
shale is in its very preliminary stages and we will have further
information to share with the committee on this aspect of the energy-
water nexus later this year.
To identify the effects of biofuel cultivation, conversion, and storage
on water supply and water quality, we are conducting a review of
relevant scientific articles and key federal and state government
reports. In addition, in consultation with the National Academy of
Sciences, we identified and spoke with a number of experts who have
published research analyzing the water supply requirements of one or
more biofuel feedstocks and the implications of increased biofuel
cultivation and conversion on water quality. Furthermore, we are
interviewing officials from DOE, the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), and the Department of Agriculture (USDA) about impacts on water
supply and water quality during the cultivation of biofuel feedstocks
and the conversion and storage of the finished biofuels. To identify
the relationship of thermoelectric plants and water, we are reviewing
selected reports, interviewing federal officials and experts, and
examining relevant energy and water data. In particular, we are
examining reports on alternative cooling technologies and water
supplies and the impact they can have on water use at power plants. We
are also interviewing officials from DOE, EPA, and the Department of
Interior's U.S. Geological Survey, as well as state water regulators
and water and energy experts at national energy laboratories and
universities. In addition, we are interviewing representatives from
electric power producers, sellers of electric power plant equipment,
cooling technology companies, and engineering firms that design new
power plants. Finally, we are examining power plant data on water
source, use, consumption, and cooling technology types collected by EIA
and data collected and reported by the U.S. Geological Survey. Our work
is being conducted in accordance with generally accepted government
accounting standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform
the audit to obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a
reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit
objectives. We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable
basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives.
Background:
Biofuels are an alternative to petroleum-based transportation fuels and
derived from renewable resources. Currently, most biofuels are derived
from corn and soybeans. Ethanol is the most commonly produced biofuel
in the United States, and about 98 percent of it is made from corn that
is grown primarily in the Midwest. Corn is converted to ethanol at
biorefineries through a fermentation process and requires water inputs
and outputs at various stages of the production process--from growth of
the feedstock to conversion into ethanol. While ethanol is primarily
produced from corn grains, next generation biofuels, such as cellulosic
ethanol and algae-based fuels, are being promoted for various reasons
including their potential to boost the nation's energy independence and
lessen environmental impacts, including on water. Cellulosic feedstocks
include annual or perennial energy crops such as switchgrass, forage
sorghum, and miscanthus; agricultural residues such as corn stover (the
cobs, stalks, leaves, and husks of corn plants); and forest residues
such as forest thinnings or chips from lumber mills. Some small
biorefineries have begun to process cellulosic feedstocks on a pilot-
scale basis; however, no commercial-scale facilities are currently
operating in the United States.[Footnote 1] In light of the federal
renewable fuel standard's requirements for cellulosic ethanol starting
in 2010,[Footnote 2] DOE is providing $272 million to support the cost
of constructing four small biorefineries that will process cellulosic
feedstocks. In addition, in recent years, researchers have begun to
explore the use of algae as a biofuel feedstock. Algae produce oil that
can be extracted and refined into biodiesel and has a potential yield
per acre that is estimated to be 10 to 20 times higher than the next
closest quality feedstock. Algae can be cultivated in open ponds or in
closed systems using large raceways of plastic bags containing water
and algae.
Thermoelectric power plants use a fuel source--for example, coal,
natural gas, nuclear material such as uranium, or the sun--to boil
water to produce steam. The steam turns a turbine connected to a
generator that produces electricity. Traditionally, water has been
withdrawn from a river or other water source to cool the steam back
into liquid so it may be reused to produce additional electricity. Most
of the water used by a traditional thermoelectric power plant is for
this cooling process, but water may also be needed for other purposes
in the plant such as for pollution control equipment. In 2000,
thermoelectric power plants accounted for 39 percent of total U.S.
freshwater withdrawals.[Footnote 3] EIA annually reports data on the
water withdrawals, consumption and discharges of power plants of a
certain size, as well as some information on water source and cooling
technology type. These data are used by federal agencies and other
researchers in estimating the overall power plant water use and
determining how this use has and will continue to change.
Information Is Limited on the Water Supply and Water Quality Impacts of
the Next Generation of Biofuels:
Our work to date indicates that while the water supply and water
quality effects of producing corn-based ethanol are fairly well
understood, less is known about the effects of the next generation of
feedstocks and fuels. The cultivation of corn for ethanol production
can require substantial quantities of water--from 7 to 321 gallons per
gallon of ethanol produced--depending on where it is grown and how much
irrigation water is used.[Footnote 4] Furthermore, corn is a relatively
resource-intensive crop, requiring higher rates of fertilizer and
pesticide applications than many other crops; some experts believe that
additional corn production for biofuels conversion will lead to an
increase in fertilizer and sediment runoff and in the number of
impaired streams and other water bodies. Some researchers and
conservation officials have told us that the impact of corn-based
ethanol on water supply and water quality could be mitigated through
research into developing additional drought-tolerant and more nutrient-
efficient crop varieties thereby decreasing the amount of water needed
for irrigation and the amount of fertilizer that needs to be applied.
Furthermore, experts also mentioned the need for additional data on
current aquifer water supplies and research on the potential of biofuel
cultivation to strain these water sources.
In contrast to corn-based ethanol, our work to date indicates that much
less is known about the effects that large-scale cultivation of
cellulosic feedstocks will have on water supplies and water quality.
Since potential cellulosic feedstocks have not been grown commercially
to date, there is little information on the cumulative water, nutrient,
and pesticide needs of these crops, and it is not yet known what
agricultural practices will actually be used to cultivate these
feedstocks on a commercial scale. For example, while some experts
assume that perennial feedstocks will be rainfed, other experts have
pointed out that to achieve maximum yields for cellulosic crops,
farmers may need to irrigate these crops. Furthermore, because water
supplies vary regionally, additional research is needed to better
understand geographical influences on feedstock production. For
example, the additional withdrawals in states relying heavily on
irrigation for agriculture, such as Nebraska, may place new demands on
the Ogallala Aquifer, an already strained resource from which eight
states draw water. In addition, if agricultural residues--such as corn
stover--are to be used, this could negatively affect soil quality,
increase the need for fertilizer, and lead to increased sediment runoff
to waterways. Considerable uncertainty exists regarding the maximum
amount of residue that can be removed for biofuels production while
maintaining soil and water quality. USDA, DOE, and some academic
researchers are attempting to develop new projections on how much
residue can be removed without compromising soil quality, but
sufficient data are not yet available to inform their efforts, and it
may take several years to accumulate such data and disseminate it to
farmers for implementation. Experts we spoke with generally agree that
more research on how to produce cellulosic feedstocks in a sustainable
way is needed.
Our work also indicates that even less is known about newer biofuels
feedstocks such as algae. Algae have the added advantage of being able
to use lower-quality water for cultivation, according to experts.
However, the impact on water supply and water quality will ultimately
depend on which cultivation methods are determined to be the most
viable. Therefore, research is needed on how best to cultivate this
feedstock in order to maximize its potential as a biofuel feedstock and
limit its potential impacts on water resources. Other areas we have
identified that relate to water and algae cultivation in need of
additional research include:
* Oil extraction. Additional research is needed on how to extract the
oil from the algal cell in such a way as to preserve the water
contained in the cell along with the oil, thereby allowing some of that
water to be recycled back into the cultivation process.
* Contaminants. Information is needed on how to manage the contaminants
that are found in the algal cultivation water and how any resulting
wastewater should be handled.
Uncertainty also exists regarding the water supply impacts of
converting feedstocks into biofuels. Biorefineries require water for
processing the fuel and need to draw from existing water resources.
Water consumed in the corn-ethanol conversion process has declined over
time with improved equipment and energy efficient design, according to
a 2009 Argonne National Laboratory study, and is currently estimated at
3 gallons of water required for each gallon of ethanol produced.
However, the primary source of freshwater for most existing corn
ethanol plants is from local groundwater aquifers and some of these
aquifers are not readily replenished. For the conversion of cellulosic
feedstocks, the amount of water consumed is less defined and will
depend on the process and on technological advancements that improve
the efficiency with which water is used. Current estimates range from
1.9 to 5.9 gallons of water, depending on the technology used. Some
experts we spoke with said that greater research is needed on how to
manage the full water needs of biorefineries and reduce these needs
further. Similar to current and next generation feedstock cultivation,
additional research is also needed to better understand the impact of
biorefinery withdrawals on aquifers and to consider potential resource
strains when siting these facilities.
Our work to date also indicates that additional research is needed on
the storage and distribution of biofuels. Ethanol is highly corrosive
and poses a risk of damage to pipelines, and underground and above-
ground storage tanks, which could in turn lead to releases to the
environment that may contaminate groundwater, among other issues. These
leaks can be the result of biofuel blends being stored in incompatible
tank systems--those that have not been certified to handle fuel blends
containing more than 10 percent ethanol. While EPA currently has some
research under way, additional study is needed into the compatibility
of higher fuel blends, such as those containing 15 percent ethanol,
with the existing fueling infrastructure. To overcome potential
compatibility issues, future research is needed on other conversion
technologies that can be used to produce renewable and advanced fuels
that are capable of being used in the existing infrastructure.
Key Efforts to Reduce Use of Freshwater at Power Plants May Not Be
Fully Captured in Existing Federal Data:
In our work to date, we have found (1) the use of advanced cooling
technologies can reduce freshwater use at thermoelectric power plants,
but federal data may not fully capture this industry change; (2) the
use of alternative water sources can also reduce freshwater use, but
federal data may not systematically capture this change; and (3)
federal research under way is focused on examining efforts to reduce
the use of freshwater in thermoelectric power plants.
Advanced cooling technologies offer the promise to reduce freshwater
use by thermoelectric power plants. Unlike traditional cooling
technologies that use water to cool the steam in power plants, advanced
cooling technologies carry out all or part of the cooling process using
air. According to power plant developers, they consider using these
water-conserving technologies in new plants, particularly in areas with
limited available water supplies. While these technologies can
significantly reduce the amount of water used in a plant--and in some
cases eliminate the use of water for cooling--their use entails a
number of challenges. For example, plants using advanced cooling
technologies may cost more to build and operate; require more land;
and, because these technologies can consume a significant amount of
energy themselves, witness lower net electricity output--especially in
hot, dry conditions. However, eliminating or minimizing freshwater use
by incorporating an advanced cooling technology provides a number of
potential benefits to plant developers, including minimizing the costs
associated with acquiring, transporting, and treating water, as well as
eliminating impacts on the environment associated with water
withdrawals, consumption, and discharge. In addition, the use of these
advanced cooling technologies may provide the flexibility to build
power plants in locations not near a source of water.
For these reasons, a number of power plant developers in the United
States and across the world have adopted advanced cooling technologies,
but according to EIA officials, the agency's forms have not been
designed to collect information on the use of advanced cooling
technologies. Moreover, the instruments the agency uses to collect
these data were developed many years ago and have not been recently
updated. EIA officials have told us that while some plants may choose
to report this information, they may not do so consistently or in such
a way that allows comprehensive identification of the universe of
plants using advanced cooling technologies. Water experts and federal
agencies we spoke to during the course of our work identified value in
the annual EIA data on cooling technologies, but some explained that
not having data on advanced cooling technologies limits public
understanding of their prevalence and analysis of the extent to which
their adoption results in a significant reduction in freshwater use.
According to EIA officials, the agency is currently redesigning the
instrument it uses to collect these data and expects to begin using the
revised instrument in 2011. In addition, during the course of our work
we noted that in 2002, EIA discontinued reporting water-related data
for nuclear power plants, including water use and cooling technology.
As we develop our final report, we will be looking at various
suggestions that we can make to DOE to improve its data collection
efforts.
Our work to date also indicates that the use of alternative water
sources can substantially reduce or eliminate the need to use
freshwater for power plant cooling at an individual plant. Alternative
water sources that may be usable for power plant cooling include
treated effluent from sewage treatment plants; groundwater that is
unsuitable for drinking or irrigation because it is high in salts or
other impurities; industrial water, such as water generated when
extracting minerals like oil, gas, and coal; and others. Use of these
alternative water sources can ease the development process where
freshwater sources are in short supply and lower the costs associated
with obtaining and using freshwater when freshwater is expensive.
Because of these advantages, alternative water sources play an
increasingly important role in reducing power plant reliance on
freshwater, but can pose challenges, including requiring special
treatment to avoid adverse effects on cooling equipment, requiring
additional efforts to comply with relevant regulations, and limiting
the potential locations of power plants to those nearby an alternative
water source. These challenges are similar to those faced by power
plants that use freshwater, but they may be exacerbated by the lower
quality of alternative water sources.
Power plant developers we spoke with told us they routinely consider
use of alternative water sources when developing their power plant
proposals. Moreover, a 2007 report by Argonne National Laboratory
indicates that the use of treated municipal wastewater at power plants
has become more common, with 38 percent of power plants after 2000
using reclaimed water. EIA collects annual data from power plants on
their water use and water source. However, according to EIA officials,
while some plants report using an alternative water source, many may
not be reporting such information since EIA's data collection form was
not designed to collect data on these freshwater alternatives. One
expert we spoke with told us that not having data on the use of
alternative water sources at power plants limits public understanding
of these trends and the extent to which these approaches are effective
in reducing freshwater use. As we develop our final report, we plan to
also develop suggestions for DOE that can improve this data gathering
process.
Power plant developers may choose to reduce their use of freshwater for
a number of reasons, such as when freshwater is unavailable or costly
to obtain, to comply with regulatory requirements, or to address public
concern. However, a developer's decision to deploy an advanced cooling
technology or an alternative water source depends on an evaluation of
the tradeoffs between the water savings and other benefits these
alternatives offer and the cost involved. For example, where water is
unavailable or prohibitively expensive, power plant developers may
determine that despite the challenges, advanced cooling technologies or
alternative water sources offer the best option for getting a
potentially profitable plant built in a specific area.
While private developers make key decisions on what types of power
plants to build and where to build them, and how to cool them based on
their views of the costs and benefits of various alternatives,
government research and development can be a tool to further the use of
alternative cooling technologies and alternative water supplies. In
this regard, the Department of Energy's National Energy Technology
Laboratory (NETL) plays a central role in DOE's research and
development effort. In recent years, NETL has funded research and
development projects through its Innovations for Existing Plants
program aimed at minimizing the challenges of deploying advanced
cooling technologies and using alternative water sources at existing
plants, among other things. In 2008, DOE awarded about $9 million to
support research and development of projects that, among other things,
could improve the performance of advanced cooling technologies, recover
water used to reduce emissions of air pollutants at coal plants for
reuse, and facilitate the use of alternative water sources such as
polluted water for cooling. Such research endeavors, if successful,
could alter the trade-off analysis power plant developers conduct in
favor of nontraditional alternatives to cooling.
Concluding Observations:
Ensuring sufficient supplies of energy and water will be essential to
meeting the demands of the 21st century. This task will be particularly
difficult, given the interdependency between energy production and
water supply and water quality and the strains that both these
resources currently face. DOE, together with other federal agencies,
has a key role to play in providing key information, helping to
identify ways to improve the productivity of both energy and water,
partnering with industry to develop technologies that can lower costs,
and analyzing what progress has been made along the way. While we
recognize that DOE currently has a number of ongoing research efforts
to develop information and technologies that will address various
aspects of the energy-water nexus, our work indicates that there are a
number of areas to focus future research and development efforts.
Investments in these areas will provide information to help ensure that
we are balancing energy independence and security with effective
management of our freshwater resources.
Mr. Chairman that concludes my prepared statement, I would be happy to
respond to any questions that you or other Members of the Subcommittee
might have.
GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments:
For further information on this testimony, please contact me at 202-
512-3841 or mittala@gao.gov. Key staff contributors to this testimony
were Jon Ludwigson, Assistant Director; Elizabeth Erdmann, Assistant
Director; Scott Clayton; Paige Gilbreath; Miriam Hill; Randy Jones;
Micah McMillan; Nicole Rishel; Swati Thomas; Lisa Vojta; and Rebecca
Wilson. Contact points for our Office of Congressional Relations and
Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this statement.
[End of section]
Footnotes:
[1] For example, Range Fuels has operated a pilot biorefinery in
Denver, Colo., since 2008 that has successfully converted pine and
hardwoods into cellulosic ethanol. The company plans to optimize the
technologies from this pilot plant at its cellulosic biorefinery,
expected to begin commercial-scale production in 2010. This
biorefinery, located in Soperton, Ga., is targeted to produce
approximately 100 million gallons of ethanol and mixed alcohols from
wood byproducts when it is at full scale.
[2] The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, Pub. L. No. 110-
140 (2007).
[3] Water consumed by thermoelectric power plants accounts for a
smaller percentage.
[4] Wu, M., M. Mintz, M. Wang, and S. Arora. Consumptive Water Use in
the Production of Ethanol and Petroleum Gasoline. Center for
Transportation Research, Energy Systems Division, Argonne National
Laboratory, January 2009.
[End of section]
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