Women in Management
Female Managers' Representation, Characteristics, and Pay Gao ID: GAO-10-1064T September 28, 2010This testimony discusses issues related to women in management. Although women's representation across the general workforce is growing, there remains a need for information about the challenges women face in advancing their careers. In 2001, using 1995 and 2000 data from the Current Population Survey, we found women were less represented in management than in the overall workforce in 4 of the 10 industries reviewed. We also found differences in the characteristics and pay of male and female managers, which we explored using statistical modeling techniques. To respond to Congress' request that we update this information to 2007, we addressed the following three questions: (1) What is the representation of women in management positions compared to their representation in nonmanagement positions by industry? (2) What are the key characteristics of women and men in management positions by industry? and (3) What is the difference in pay between women and men in full-time management positions by industry?
When looking across all industries combined from 2000 to 2007, female managers' representation and differences between female and male managers' characteristics remained largely similar. However, differences narrowed substantially in level of education and slightly in pay. 1) In 2007, women comprised an estimated 40 percent of managers and 49 percent of nonmanagers on average for the 13 industry sectors we analyzed--industries that comprised almost all of the nation's workforce--compared to 39 percent of managers and 49 percent of nonmanagers in 2000. In all but three industry sectors women were less than proportionately represented in management positions than in nonmanagement positions in 2007. Women were more than proportionately represented in management positions in construction and public administration, and there was no statistically significant difference between women's representation in management and nonmanagement positions for the transportation and utilities sector. On average for the 13 industry sectors, an estimated 14 percent of female managers in 2007 were mothers--with their own children under age 18 living in the household--compared to 17 percent of female nonmanagers. 2) According to our estimates, female managers in 2007 had less education, were younger on average, were more likely to work part-time, and were less likely to be married or have children, than male managers. While the average female married manager earned the majority of her own household's wages, her share of household wages was smaller than the share contributed by the average male married manager to his household's wages. These findings were generally similar to findings for 2000. While both male and female managers experienced increases in attainment of bachelor's degrees or higher, women's gains surpassed men's. According to our estimates, male managers with a bachelor's degree or higher increased three percentage points from 53 percent in 2000 to 56 percent in 2007, while female managers with a bachelor's degree or higher increased 6 percentage points from 45 percent in 2000 to 51 percent in 2007. Similarly, while the share of male managers with a master's degree or higher went up less than 1 percentage point from 2000 to 2007, the share of female managers with a master's degree or higher rose nearly 4 percentage points. 3) The estimated difference in pay between female managers working full time and male managers working full time narrowed slightly between 2000 and 2007 after adjusting for selected factors that were available and are commonly used in examining salary levels, such as age, hours worked beyond full time, and education. When looking at all industry sectors together and adjusting for these factors, we estimated that female managers earned 81 cents for every dollar earned by male managers in 2007, compared to 79 cents in 2000. The estimated adjusted pay difference varied by industry sector, with female managers' earnings ranging from 78 cents to 87 cents for every dollar earned by male managers in 2007, depending on the industry sector.
GAO-10-1064T, Women in Management: Female Managers' Representation, Characteristics, and Pay
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Testimony:
Before the Joint Economic Committee, U.S. Congress:
United States Government Accountability Office:
GAO:
For Release on Delivery:
Expected at 10:00 a.m. EDT:
Tuesday, September 28, 2010:
Women In Management:
Female Managers' Representation, Characteristics, and Pay:
Statement of Andrew Sherrill, Director:
Education, Workforce, and Income Security:
GAO-10-1064T:
[End of section]
Chair Maloney and Members of the Committee:
I am pleased to be here today as you examine issues related to women
in management. Although women's representation across the general
workforce is growing, there remains a need for information about the
challenges women face in advancing their careers. In 2001, using 1995
and 2000 data from the Current Population Survey, we found women were
less represented in management than in the overall workforce in 4 of
the 10 industries reviewed.[Footnote 1] We also found differences in
the characteristics and pay of male and female managers, which we
explored using statistical modeling techniques. To respond to your
request that we update this information to 2007, we addressed the
following three questions: (1) What is the representation of women in
management positions compared to their representation in nonmanagement
positions by industry? (2) What are the key characteristics of women
and men in management positions by industry? and (3) What is the
difference in pay between women and men in full-time management
positions by industry? My remarks today are based on our report,
released at this hearing, Women in Management: Analysis of Female
Managers' Representation, Characteristics, and Pay.[Footnote 2]
To examine these questions, we analyzed data from the U.S. Census
Bureau's American Community Survey (ACS) for the years 2000 through
2007.[Footnote 3] We selected ACS rather than the Current Population
Survey due to the greater number of observations in ACS. We analyzed
managers across all of the broad industry categories used in ACS,
representing the entire workforce, except for the agriculture and
mining sectors, individuals living in group quarters, and those who
were not living in a U.S. state or the District of Columbia.[Footnote
4] We defined "managers" as all individuals classified under the
"manager occupation" category in ACS, which includes a wide range of
more than 1,000 job titles. In our multivariate analysis of the
differences in pay between male and female managers working full time
and year round by industry,[Footnote 5] we used annual earnings as our
dependent variable, adjusting for certain characteristics that were
available in the dataset and are commonly used to estimate adjusted
pay differences. These include age, hours worked beyond full time,
race and ethnicity, state, veteran status, education level,
citizenship, marital status, and presence of children in the household.
[Footnote 6] We assessed the reliability of the ACS generally and of
critical data elements and determined that they were sufficiently
reliable for our analyses. We conducted our work from February 2010
to September 2010 in accordance with all sections of GAO's Quality
Assurance Framework that are relevant to our objectives. The
framework requires that we plan and perform the engagement to obtain
sufficient and appropriate evidence to meet our stated objectives
and to discuss any limitations in our work. We believe that the
information and data obtained, and the analysis conducted, provide
a reasonable basis for any findings and conclusions in this product.
In summary, when looking across all industries combined from 2000 to
2007, female managers' representation and differences between female
and male managers' characteristics remained largely similar. However,
differences narrowed substantially in level of education and slightly
in pay.
* In 2007, women comprised an estimated 40 percent of managers and 49
percent of nonmanagers on average for the 13 industry sectors we
analyzed--industries that comprised almost all of the nation's
workforce--compared to 39 percent of managers and 49 percent of
nonmanagers in 2000. In all but three industry sectors women were less
than proportionately represented in management positions than in
nonmanagement positions in 2007. Women were more than proportionately
represented in management positions in construction and public
administration, and there was no statistically significant difference
between women's representation in management and nonmanagement
positions for the transportation and utilities sector (see figure 1).
On average for the 13 industry sectors, an estimated 14 percent of
female managers in 2007 were mothers--with their own children under
age 18 living in the household--compared to 17 percent of female
nonmanagers.
Figure 1: Estimated Female Representation by Industry, 2007:
[Refer to PDF for image: horizontal bar graph]
Average for all industries:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 14%;
Managers, percent female: 40%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 17%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 49%.
Construction:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 4%;
Managers, percent female: 12%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 4%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 10%.
Educational services:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 18%;
Managers, percent female: 57%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 26%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 70%.
Financial activities:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 20%;
Managers, percent female: 50%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 21%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 59%.
Health care and social assistance:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 26%;
Managers, percent female: 70%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 31%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 80%.
Information and communications:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 14%;
Managers, percent female: 40%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 14%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 45%.
Leisure and hospitality:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 17%;
Managers, percent female: 45%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 15%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 54%.
Manufacturing:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 9%;
Managers, percent female: 23%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 11%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 31%.
Other services[B]:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 14%;
Managers, percent female: 46%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 16%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 51%.
Professional and business services:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 14%;
Managers, percent female: 38%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 16%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 45%.
Public administration:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 15%;
Managers, percent female: 45%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 14%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 42%.
Retail trade:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 14%;
Managers, percent female: 36%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 15%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 51%.
Transportation and utilities[C]:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 8%;
Managers, percent female: 27%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 9%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 25%.
Wholesale trade:
Managers, percent mothers[A]: 9%;
Managers, percent female: 26%;
Nonmanagers, percent mothers[A]: 11%;
Nonmanagers, percent female: 31%.
[A] Mothers refers to women with their own children under age 18
living in the household.
[B] Positions included, for example, auto repair shop managers and
parking lot managers.
[C] The difference in proportions of female managers and nonmanagers
was not statistically significant.
Source: GAO analysis of American Community Survey data.
[End of figure]
* According to our estimates, female managers in 2007 had less
education, were younger on average, were more likely to work part-time,
[Footnote 7] and were less likely to be married or have children,
than male managers (see figure 2). While the average female married
manager earned the majority of her own household's wages, her share of
household wages was smaller than the share contributed by the average
male married manager to his household's wages. These findings were
generally similar to findings for 2000. While both male and female
managers experienced increases in attainment of bachelor's degrees or
higher, women's gains surpassed men's. According to our estimates,
male managers with a bachelor's degree or higher increased three
percentage points from 53 percent in 2000 to 56 percent in 2007, while
female managers with a bachelor's degree or higher increased 6
percentage points from 45 percent in 2000 to 51 percent in 2007.
Similarly, while the share of male managers with a master's degree or
higher went up less than 1 percentage point from 2000 to 2007, the
share of female managers with a master's degree or higher rose nearly
4 percentage points.
Figure 2: Estimates for Characteristics of Managers by Gender, 2007:
[Figures: Refer to PDF for images: 5 horizontal bar graphs; 2 pie-
charts]
Age of managers:
Women: average age 43.4 years;
Men: average age 45.2 years.
Under 40:
Women: 38%;
Men: 33%.
40 or older:
Women: 62%;
Men: 67%.
Education and managers:
Bachelor‘s degree (or higher):
Women: 51%;
Men: 56%.
Master‘s degree (or higher):
Women: 19%;
Men: 20%.
Marriage and managers:
Percent who are married:
Women: 59%;
Men: 74%.
Share of household wages:
Women: 55%;
Men: 75%.
Children and managers:
Number of children in the household[A]:
Women:
None: 63%;
One: 18%;
Two: 15%;
3+1: 5%.
Men:
None: 57%;
One: 17%;
Two: 18%;
3+1: 9%.
[A] This refers to the number of children under age 18 living in a
household with a manager.
Source: GAO analysis of American Community Survey data.
[End of figure]
[A] This refers to the number of children under age 18 living in a
household with a manager.
* The estimated difference in pay between female managers working full
time and male managers working full time narrowed slightly between
2000 and 2007 after adjusting for selected factors that were available
and are commonly used in examining salary levels, such as age, hours
worked beyond full time, and education (see figure 3). When looking at
all industry sectors together and adjusting for these factors, we
estimated that female managers earned 81 cents for every dollar earned
by male managers in 2007, compared to 79 cents in 2000. The estimated
adjusted pay difference varied by industry sector, with female
managers' earnings ranging from 78 cents to 87 cents for every dollar
earned by male managers in 2007, depending on the industry sector.
Figure 3: Estimated Pay Differences for Full-Time Managers, 2000-2007:
[Figure: Refer to PDF for image: 3 line graphs]
Full-time managers pay: Male pay = $1.00
All managers:
Year: 2000;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.79;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.69.
Year: 2001;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.80;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.69.
Year: 2002;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.80;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.71.
Year: 2003;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.82;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.72.
Year: 2004;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.81;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.71.
Year: 2005;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.81;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.70.
Year: 2006;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.81;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.71.
Year: 2007;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.81;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.71.
Managers with children[A]:
Year: 2000;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.79;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.63.
Year: 2001;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.77;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.63.
Year: 2002;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.79;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.67.
Year: 2003;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.81;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.66.
Year: 2004;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.80;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.65.
Year: 2005;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.79;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.65.
Year: 2006;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.79;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.65.
Year: 2007;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.79;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.66.
Managers without children[A]:
Year: 2000;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.81;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.74.
Year: 2001;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.82;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.74.
Year: 2002;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.81;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.75.
Year: 2003;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.83;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.77.
Year: 2004;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.83;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.76.
Year: 2005;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.82;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.75.
Year: 2006;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.83;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.76.
Year: 2007;
Adjusted female pay[B]: $0.83;
Unadjusted female pay: $0.76.
Source: GAO analysis of American Community Survey data.
Note: The narrowing of the gap between 2000 and 2007 for all managers
and managers without children in the household was statistically
significant at the 95 percent confidence level. For 2001-2007, the
margins of error for pay gaps differed for any single year by no
greater than plus or minus 2 cents. See enclosure III for a table of
margins of error for each year.
[A] Children refer to children under age 18 living in a household with
a manager.
[B] For this analysis, we adjusted for age, hours worked beyond full
time, race and ethnicity, state, veteran status, education, industry
sector, citizenship, marital status, and presence of children in the
household. We adjusted for industry sector to control for the
possibility that pay differences could occur because female managers
tended to be employed in industries that had lower rates of pay.
However, we acknowledge that the distribution of female managers by
industry sector itself might reflect some level of discrimination
associated with hiring, promotion, or other employer practices. For
the subsequent industry-specific analyses, we adjusted for the same
variables, except we excluded industry sector.
[End of figure]
Our analysis is descriptive in nature and neither confirms nor refutes
the presence of discriminatory practices. Some of the unexplained
differences in pay seen here could be explained by factors for which
we lacked data or are difficult to measure, such as level of
managerial responsibility, field of study, years of experience, or
discriminatory practices, all of which are cited in the research
literature as affecting earnings. More detailed information on the
characteristics of women in management in specific industries could
help policymakers to identify possible actions to help women advance
to management positions. For example, starting in 2009, the ACS
included a question on field of study, a variable recognized as
important in examining differences in pay and advancement.
Improvements to the type of data available, such as this one, could
help researchers to better understand the determinants of salary and
advancement.
The Departments of Commerce and Labor provided technical comments on a
draft of our report, which we incorporated as appropriate.
Madam Chair, this concludes my prepared remarks. I would be happy to
answer any questions that you or the other members of the committee
may have.
For further information on this testimony, please contact Andrew
Sherrill at (202) 512-7215 or sherrilla@gao.gov. Contact points for
our Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found
on the last page of this statement. Individuals making key
contributions to this testimony include Gretta Goodwin (Assistant
Director), Kate Blumenreich, Lindsay Read, James Bennett, Susan
Bernstein, Ben Bolitzer, Russ Burnett, Heather Hahn, Anna Maria Ortiz,
and Shana Wallace. Also contributing to this work were Ron Fecso,
James Rebbe, and Patrina Clark.
Signed by:
Andrew Sherrill, Director:
Education, Workforce, and Income Security Issues:
[End of section]
Footnotes:
[1] GAO, Women in Management: Analysis of Selected Data from the
Current Population Survey, [hyperlink,
http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-02-156] (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 23,
2001).
[2] GAO, Women in Management: Analysis of Female Managers'
Representation, Characteristics, and Pay, [hyperlink,
http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-10-892R] (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 20,
2010).
[3] We reported on the years 2000 through 2007 to avoid concerns about
the role of the recession that began in December, 2007 and to avoid
any complications to the analysis due to the change of survey
questions in the data set we used that were made in 2008. The ACS
became nationally representative in 2000, and thus was not available
for the analysis we did in the 2001 report on women in management.
[4] We excluded agriculture because, according to the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, farmers may have other sources of income, such as from
federal subsidies, which may not be reported in ACS as income and
would complicate our analysis on pay differentials. We excluded mining
because we found a relatively limited number of observations in the
mining industry. According to ACS, group quarters is a place where
people live or stay, in a group living arrangement that is owned or
managed by an entity or organization providing housing and/or services
for the residents. Examples include college residence halls, nursing
homes, group homes, military barracks, correctional facilities, and
mental hospitals.
[5] Our definition of individuals working full time were those who,
over the past 12 months, reported usually working greater than or
equal to 35 hours per week and 50 weeks per year, and reported
positive wages earned.
[6] When we looked at all industries together, we also adjusted for
industry sector.
[7] Our definition of individuals working part-time included those who
were not working full time, but reported usually working some hours
per week, weeks worked, and wages earned, all over the past 12 months.
[End of section]
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