Wind Power
Impacts on Wildlife and Government Responsibilities for Regulating Development and Protecting Wildlife Gao ID: GAO-05-906 September 16, 2005Wind power has recently experienced dramatic growth in the United States, with further growth expected. However, several wind power-generating facilities have killed migratory birds and bats, prompting concern from wildlife biologists and others about the species affected, and the cumulative effects on species populations. GAO assessed (1) what available studies and experts have reported about the impacts of wind power facilities on wildlife in the United States and what can be done to mitigate or prevent such impacts, (2) the roles and responsibilities of government agencies in regulating wind power facilities, and (3) the roles and responsibilities of government agencies in protecting wildlife. GAO reviewed a sample of six states with wind power development for this report.
The impact of wind power facilities on wildlife varies by region and by species. Specifically, studies show that wind power facilities in northern California and in Pennsylvania and West Virginia have killed large numbers of raptors and bats, respectively. Studies in other parts of the country show comparatively lower levels of mortality, although most facilities have killed at least some birds. However, many wind power facilities in the United States have not been studied, and, therefore, scientists cannot draw definitive conclusions about the threat that wind power poses to wildlife in general. Further, much is still unknown about migratory bird flyways and overall species population levels, making it difficult to determine the cumulative impact that the wind power industry has on wildlife species. Notably, only a few studies exist concerning ways in which to reduce wildlife fatalities at wind power facilities. Regulating wind power facilities is largely the responsibility of state and local governments. In the six states GAO reviewed, wind power facilities are subject to local- or state-level processes, such as zoning ordinances to permit the construction and operation of wind power facilities. As part of this process, some agencies require environmental assessments before construction. However, regulatory agency officials do not always have experience or expertise to address environmental and wildlife impacts from wind power. The federal government plays a minimal role in approving wind power facilities, only regulating facilities that are on federal lands or have some form of federal involvement, such as receiving federal funds. In these cases, the wind power project must comply with federal laws, such as the National Environmental Policy Act, as well as any relevant state and local laws. Federal and state laws afford generalized protections to wildlife from wind power as with any other activity. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) is the primary agency tasked with implementing wildlife protections in the United States. Three federal laws--the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, and the Endangered Species Act--generally forbid harm to various species of wildlife. Although significant wildlife mortality events have occurred at wind power facilities, the federal government has not prosecuted any cases against wind power companies under these wildlife laws, preferring instead to encourage companies to take mitigation steps to avoid future harm. All of the six states GAO reviewed had statutes that can be used to protect some wildlife from wind power impacts; however, similar to FWS, no states have taken any prosecutorial actions against wind power facilities where wildlife mortalities have occurred.
RecommendationsOur recommendations from this work are listed below with a Contact for more information. Status will change from "In process" to "Open," "Closed - implemented," or "Closed - not implemented" based on our follow up work.
Director: Team: Phone:GAO-05-906, Wind Power: Impacts on Wildlife and Government Responsibilities for Regulating Development and Protecting Wildlife
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Responsibilities for Regulating Development and Protecting Wildlife'
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Report to Congressional Requesters:
September 2005:
Wind Power:
Impacts on Wildlife and Government Responsibilities for Regulating
Development and Protecting Wildlife:
[Hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-05-906]:
GAO Highlights:
Highlights of GAO-05-906, a report to congressional requesters:
Why GAO Did This Study:
Wind power has recently experienced dramatic growth in the United
States, with further growth expected. However, several wind power-
generating facilities have killed migratory birds and bats, prompting
concern from wildlife biologists and others about the species affected,
and the cumulative effects on species populations.
GAO assessed (1) what available studies and experts have reported about
the impacts of wind power facilities on wildlife in the United States
and what can be done to mitigate or prevent such impacts, (2) the roles
and responsibilities of government agencies in regulating wind power
facilities, and (3) the roles and responsibilities of government
agencies in protecting wildlife. GAO reviewed a sample of six states
with wind power development for this report.
What GAO Found:
The impact of wind power facilities on wildlife varies by region and by
species. Specifically, studies show that wind power facilities in
northern California and in Pennsylvania and West Virginia have killed
large numbers of raptors and bats, respectively. Studies in other parts
of the country show comparatively lower levels of mortality, although
most facilities have killed at least some birds. However, many wind
power facilities in the United States have not been studied, and,
therefore, scientists cannot draw definitive conclusions about the
threat that wind power poses to wildlife in general. Further, much is
still unknown about migratory bird flyways and overall species
population levels, making it difficult to determine the cumulative
impact that the wind power industry has on wildlife species. Notably,
only a few studies exist concerning ways in which to reduce wildlife
fatalities at wind power facilities.
Regulating wind power facilities is largely the responsibility of state
and local governments. In the six states GAO reviewed, wind power
facilities are subject to local- or state-level processes, such as
zoning ordinances to permit the construction and operation of wind
power facilities. As part of this process, some agencies require
environmental assessments before construction. However, regulatory
agency officials do not always have experience or expertise to address
environmental and wildlife impacts from wind power. The federal
government plays a minimal role in approving wind power facilities,
only regulating facilities that are on federal lands or have some form
of federal involvement, such as receiving federal funds. In these
cases, the wind power project must comply with federal laws, such as
the National Environmental Policy Act, as well as any relevant state
and local laws.
Federal and state laws afford generalized protections to wildlife from
wind power as with any other activity. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (FWS) is the primary agency tasked with implementing wildlife
protections in the United States. Three federal laws”the Migratory Bird
Treaty Act, the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, and the
Endangered Species Act”generally forbid harm to various species of
wildlife. Although significant wildlife mortality events have occurred
at wind power facilities, the federal government has not prosecuted any
cases against wind power companies under these wildlife laws,
preferring instead to encourage companies to take mitigation steps to
avoid future harm. All of the six states GAO reviewed had statutes that
can be used to protect some wildlife from wind power impacts; however,
similar to FWS, no states have taken any prosecutorial actions against
wind power facilities where wildlife mortalities have occurred.
What GAO Recommends:
GAO recommends that FWS provide state and local regulatory agencies
with information on the potential wildlife impacts from wind power and
the resources available to help make decisions about where wind power
development should be approved.
The Department of the Interior agreed with GAO‘s recommendation.
www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-05-906.
To view the full product, including the scope and methodology, click on
the link above. For more information, contact Robin Nazzaro at (202)
512-3841 or nazzaror@gao.gov.
[End of section]
Letter:
September 16, 2005:
The Honorable Nick J. Rahall, II:
Ranking Democratic Member, Committee on Resources:
House of Representatives:
The Honorable Alan B. Mollohan:
Ranking Democratic Member, Subcommittee on Science, the Departments of
State, Justice, and Commerce and Related Agencies:
Committee on Appropriations:
House of Representatives:
The production of wind power, a renewable energy source, has recently
experienced dramatic growth in the United States, although it still
generates less than 1 percent of the electricity used in this country.
Wind power-generating facilities were first built in California about
25 years ago. Now wind power facilities can be found in over 30 states,
and the industry is expected to continue to grow rapidly. The vast
majority of wind power facilities are located in just 10 western and
midwestern states; most are on nonfederal land. Development has slowly
made its way east and is currently being pursued along the ridge tops
of the Appalachian Mountains in Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and
West Virginia. Once thought to have practically no adverse
environmental effects, it is now recognized that wind power facilities
can have adverse impacts--particularly on wildlife, and most
significantly on birds and bats.
Large numbers of birds and bats are believed to follow and cross
through many parts of the United States, including along mountain
ridges, during their seasonal migrations. Consequently, wind power
projects located in these areas could potentially impact these species.
At wind power-generating facilities in Appalachia and California, wind
turbines have killed large numbers of migratory birds and bats. Wind
power facilities may also have other impacts on wildlife through
alterations of habitat. Habitat destruction and modification is a
leading threat to the continued survival of wildlife species in the
United States.
In this context, we assessed (1) what available studies and experts
have reported about the impacts of wind power facilities on wildlife in
the United States and what can be done to mitigate or prevent such
impacts, (2) the roles and responsibilities of government agencies in
regulating wind power facilities, and (3) the roles and
responsibilities of government agencies in protecting wildlife.
To address these objectives, we reviewed major scientific studies and
reports on direct impacts from wind power on avian species and other
wildlife (we did not assess indirect impacts, such as habitat impacts).
We interviewed experts from the Department of the Interior's U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service (FWS), state agencies, academia, industry, and
conservation groups and obtained their views on these studies and
reports. We also reviewed a nonprobability sample of six states with
wind power development--California, Minnesota, New York, Oregon,
Pennsylvania, and West Virginia.[Footnote 1] We selected these states
to reflect a range in installed wind generating capacity, regulatory
processes, history of wind power development, and geographic
distribution and to reflect our requesters' interests. We identified
and reviewed relevant federal, state, and local laws and regulations.
In addition, we interviewed federal, state, and local officials who
were responsible for implementing related programs. More information
about the objectives, scope, and methodology of our evaluation is
presented in appendix I. We conducted our work between December 2004
and July 2005 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing
standards, including an assessment of data reliability and internal
controls.
Results in Brief:
Recent studies and interviews with experts indicate that the impacts of
wind power facilities on birds and other wildlife vary by region and by
species. Wildlife mortalities in two locations in particular have
elicited concerns from scientists, regulators, and the public.
Specifically, a recent study shows that over 1,000 raptors are killed
by wind power facilities in northern California each year. Many experts
attribute this large number of fatalities to unique aspects of wind
power development in northern California, such as the unusually large
number of turbines (over 5,000), the type of turbines in the region,
and the presence of abundant raptor prey in the area. On the other side
of the country, a recent study estimated that over 2,000 bats were
killed during a 1-year period at a wind power facility in the mountains
of eastern West Virginia. Studies from these two locations stand in
contrast to studies from other wind power facilities. These studies
show relatively lower bird and bat mortality. However, bat estimates
are less precise because most of the studies were designed to estimate
only bird mortality. These studies have not elicited the same degree of
concern from biologists as the studies from West Virginia and
California. However, significant gaps in the literature make it
difficult for scientists to draw conclusions about wind power's impact
on wildlife in general. For example, experts told us that there is a
shortage of information on migratory bird routes and bat behavior as
well as the ways in which topography, weather, and turbine type affect
mortality. In addition, studies conducted at one location can rarely be
used to extrapolate potential impacts or mitigation effectiveness at
other locations because of differences in site-specific conditions,
such as topography, the types and densities of species present, and the
type of wind turbines installed. Finally, while some authors have
recommended mitigation strategies for reducing bird and bat kills,
there are relatively few comprehensive studies testing the
effectiveness of these strategies.
Regulating wind power facilities on nonfederal land is largely the
responsibility of state and local governments. In the six states we
reviewed, the permitting of wind power development consisted of local-
level processes, state-level processes, or a combination of the two. In
California, New York, and Pennsylvania, local governments regulate the
development of wind power. Local governments in these states generally
require wind developers to adhere to local zoning ordinances and obtain
special use permits before construction. In addition, California and
New York have state environmental laws that require various studies and
analyses to be conducted before a permit can be issued. West Virginia
uses a state-level process, whereby its Public Service Commission is
responsible for, among other things, regulating the activities of all
public utilities operating in the state, including wind power. The
commission has the authority to include certain conditions in wind
power certificates, such as requiring wildlife studies before and after
construction. In Minnesota and Oregon, local and state agencies
regulate wind power development. In these two states, local agencies,
such as county planning commissions or zoning boards, permit the
development of wind power unless a project exceeds a certain level of
electric-generating capacity; larger facilities are regulated by a
state agency. While some state and local regulatory agencies require
environmental assessments before construction, some state and local
regulatory agency officials told us that they have little experience or
expertise in addressing environmental and wildlife impacts from wind
power. For example, officials in one state told us that they did not
have the expertise to evaluate wildlife impacts and review studies
prior to construction. The federal government generally only has a
regulatory role in wind power development when development occurs on
federal land or involves some form of federal participation, such as
providing funding for projects. In these cases, the development and
operation of a wind power facility must comply with any state and local
laws as well as federal laws, such as the National Environmental Policy
Act and the Endangered Species Act--which often require preconstruction
studies or analyses and possibly modifications to proposed projects to
avoid adverse environmental effects.
As with any activity, federal and state laws afford protections to
wildlife from wind power facilities. Three laws--the Migratory Bird
Treaty Act, the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, and the
Endangered Species Act--are the federal laws most relevant to
protecting wildlife from wind power facilities, and these laws
generally forbid harm to various species of wildlife. FWS is the
federal agency that has primary responsibility for implementing and
enforcing these three laws. Although none of the three laws expressly
require wind power developers and operators to take specific steps to
ensure that wildlife will not be harmed during either the construction
or operation of their facilities, wind power developers or operators
are liable for any harm to protected species that may occur. In some
cases, developers voluntarily consult with FWS--or a state natural
resources agency--before they construct a project or they do so as a
requirement of a state or local wind power regulatory agency, to
identify potential impacts to wildlife. In other cases, federal
involvement may consist of FWS law enforcement officials investigating
instances of wildlife fatalities at a wind power facility. While
significant mortality events have occurred at some wind power
facilities--and, in some cases, are recurring--the federal government
has not prosecuted any cases against wind power companies for
violations of federal wildlife laws. In some cases, FWS has not taken
action because the species killed are not federally protected, such as
the bat species killed in West Virginia. In cases where violations of
federal law have occurred, FWS law enforcement officials told us that
before FWS pursues civil or criminal penalties, the agency prefers to
work with companies to encourage them to take mitigation steps to avoid
future harm. According to FWS officials, they have been reasonably
successful in resolving impacts to wildlife by following this approach
with the electric power industry. FWS has also referred cases against
wind power developers to either the Interior's Office of the Solicitor
San Francisco field office or the Department of Justice for killing
raptors, but Justice was unable to comment on the specifics of its
ongoing investigation. FWS has been working with the wind industry to
help identify solutions and ensure that wildlife mortality at wind
power facilities is minimized. For example, FWS has participated in
industry-sponsored workshops and conferences, issued voluntary
guidelines for industry to use in developing new projects, and served
as a member in a wildlife working group with industry. Regarding state
wildlife protections, all of the six states we reviewed have statutes
that can be used to protect some wildlife from wind power impacts.
However, similar to FWS, no states have taken any prosecutorial actions
against wind power facilities where wildlife mortalities have occurred.
To encourage potential wildlife impacts to be considered when wind
power facilities are permitted, we are making a recommendation to FWS
to reach out to state and local regulatory agencies with information on
the potential wildlife impacts due to wind power and on the resources
available to help make decisions about the siting of wind power
facilities.
We received written comments on a draft of this report. The Department
of the Interior stated that they generally agree with our findings and
our recommendation in the report. Written comments from the department
are included in appendix III.
Background:
The energy used to generate our nation's electricity comes from many
different sources. Currently, most electricity in the United States is
generated with fossil fuel and nuclear technologies--coal (52 percent),
nuclear (20 percent), natural gas (16 percent), and oil (3 percent).
Fossil fuels are considered nonrenewable because they are finite and
will eventually dwindle or become too expensive or environmentally
damaging to retrieve. Wind, however, is one of several sources of
energy known as renewable energy. Other forms of renewable energy
sources include sunlight (photovoltaics), heat from the sun (solar
thermal), naturally occurring underground steam and heat (geothermal),
plant and animal waste (biomass), and water (hydropower).
To reduce our dependence on nonrenewable energy sources, the United
States has promoted the development of renewable resources, such as
wind. A key federal program supporting the development of such sources
is the federal production tax credit established by the Energy Policy
Act of 1992.[Footnote 2]This law provides a tax credit for electricity
generated by renewable energy sources, such as wind turbines. The
Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 provides an additional incentive for
wind power growth.[Footnote 3] In some cases, this law allows a 5-year
depreciation schedule for renewable energy systems. In conjunction with
the tax credit, this accelerated depreciation allows an even greater
tax break for renewable energy projects, such as wind projects, that
have high initial capital costs.[Footnote 4]
Some states also provide incentives for wind power development. One of
the strongest drivers is a renewable portfolio standard. Generally, a
renewable portfolio standard requires utilities operating in a state to
acquire a minimum amount of their electricity supply from renewable
energy sources. As of June 2005, 18 states had some form of renewable
power requirements capable of being met by wind power. Other common
types of incentives for renewable energy development provided by
several state and local governments are income tax incentives and
property and sales tax exemptions. Many states provide more than one
type of incentive. In addition, 25 states have statewide wind working
groups that are funded (at least partially) through grants from the
Department of Energy (DOE). The purpose of these working groups is to
promote more widespread development of wind power.
These federal and state programs have helped spur significant wind
power development in the last 5 years. At the end of 2004, the total
installed capacity from wind power in the United States was 6,740
megawatts (MW), or enough capacity to meet the electricity demand of
between 1.5 and 2.0 million average American households (see fig. 1).
Figure 1: Installed Wind Power-Generating Capacity in Megawatts, by
State, as of January 24, 2005:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
Between January 2000 and December 2004, installed electric-generating
capacity more than doubled, adding over 4,200 MW of capacity. Although
wind power generates less than 1 percent of the nation's electricity,
with an average annual growth rate of over 24 percent, it is the
fastest growing source of electricity generation on a percentage basis.
Because wind energy is a function of wind speed, the best locations for
turbines are areas that have frequent strong winds to turn the blades
of the power-generating turbines. See figure 2 for areas of the United
States with high wind potential.
Figure 2: Areas of the United States with High Wind Potential:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
According to DOE, 36 of the 48 continental states have wind resources
that would support utility-scale wind power projects (i.e., projects
that generate at least 1 MW of electric power from 1 or more turbines
annually for sale to a local utility). A DOE goal for wind power is to
generate 5 percent of the electricity generated in the United States by
2020; the American Wind Energy Association has a similar goal.[Footnote
5] To reach this goal, the association estimates that about 100,000 MW
of installed capacity will be needed--approximately 15 times the
current installed capacity. On the basis of the average MW size of wind
turbines commonly being installed today (1.5 MW), more than 62,000
additional turbines will need to be added to the existing 16,000
turbines already constructed in the United States to meet such a goal.
Most of the wind power development in the United States has occurred in
10 western and midwestern states--California, Colorado, Iowa,
Minnesota, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, Washington, and
Wyoming. In fact, these 10 states have over 90 percent of the total
installed wind power capacity nationwide. Only recently have developers
begun to build wind energy facilities in the eastern United States. As
shown in figure 2, wind power potential in this geographic area is best
along mountain ridges, primarily the Appalachian Mountains, and along
the coast of the northeastern United States.
Wind power is considered a "green" technology because, unlike fossil
fuel power plants, it does not produce harmful emissions, such as
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, mercury, and
particulate matter, which can pose human health and environmental risks
such as acid rain. However, it is now recognized that wind power
facilities can adversely affect the environment in other ways,
specifically in impacting wildlife such as birds and bats. Wind power
facilities located in migratory pathways or important habitats may harm
the wildlife living or passing through the area by killing or injuring
them or by disrupting feeding or breeding behaviors. But wind power is
not alone in its impacts on wildlife. Millions, or perhaps billions, of
wildlife are killed every year in the United States through a myriad of
human activities. While sources of bat mortality are not as well known,
FWS estimates that some of the leading sources of bird mortality, per
year, are collisions with building windows--97 million to 976 million
bird deaths, collisions with communication towers--4 million to 50
million bird deaths, poisoning from pesticides--at least 72 million
birds, and attacks by domestic and feral cats--hundreds of millions of
bird deaths. Human activities also result in the destruction or
modification of wildlife habitat; habitat loss and fragmentation are
leading threats to the continued survival of many species.
Studies Show Wind Power Facility Impacts on Wildlife Vary, Although
Notable Gaps in the Literature Remain and Few Studies Address
Mitigation:
Recent studies and interviews with experts reveal that the impacts of
wind power facilities on birds and other wildlife vary by region and by
species. Specifically, studies showing raptor mortality in California
and bat mortality in Appalachia have elicited concerns from scientists,
environmental groups, and regulators because of the large number of
kills in these areas and the potential cumulative impact on some
species. Thus far, documented bird and bat mortality from wind power in
other parts of the country has not occurred in numbers high enough to
raise concerns. However, gaps in the literature make it difficult to
develop definitive conclusions about the impacts of wind power on birds
and other wildlife. Notably, only a few studies have been conducted on
strategies to address the potential risks wind power facilities pose to
wildlife.
Wildlife Mortality Varies by Region and by Species:
Our review of the literature and discussions with experts revealed
that, thus far, concerns over direct impacts to wildlife from wind
power facilities have been concentrated in two geographic areas--
northern California and Appalachia.[Footnote 6] (For a discussion on
how we selected these studies, see app. I.) While bird and bat kills
have been documented in many locations, biologists are primarily
concerned about mortality in these two regions because of the numbers
of wildlife killed and the species affected.
Studies Have Found Large Numbers of Raptors Killed by Wind Turbines in
California:
Wind power facilities in northern California, specifically in the
Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area about 50 miles east of San Francisco,
have been responsible for the deaths of numerous raptors, or birds of
prey, such as hawks and golden eagles, and, as a result, these deaths
have elicited concern from wildlife protection groups, biologists, and
regulators. Studies conducted in the last two decades have documented
large numbers of raptor deaths in this area. One study in our review
found estimates as high as over 1,000 raptor deaths per year. Such
large numbers of raptor kills due to wind power are not seen elsewhere
in the United States. A 2001 summary that examined raptor mortality
rates from studies in 10 states estimated that over 90 percent of the
raptors killed annually in the United States by wind power turbines
occurred in California.[Footnote 7]
Several unique features of the wind resource area at Altamont Pass
contribute to the high number of raptor deaths. First, California was
the first area to develop wind power in significant numbers and thus
has some of the oldest turbines still in operation in the United
States. Older turbines produce less power per turbine, so it took many
turbines to produce a certain level of energy; today, newer facilities
producing the same amount of energy would have much fewer turbines. For
example, Altamont Pass has over 5,000 wind turbines--many of which are
older models--whereas, newer facilities generally have significantly
fewer turbines (see figs. 3 and 4). Some experts told us that the sheer
number of turbines in Altamont Pass has been a major reason for the
high number of fatalities in the area.
Figure 3: Example of Older Generation Wind Turbines in Altamont Pass,
Northern California:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
Figure 4: Example of a Newer Generation Wind Power Facility:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
Secondly, some scientists believe that the design of older generation
turbines, like those found in Altamont Pass, are more fatal to raptors.
Specifically, early turbines were mounted on towers 60 feet to 80 feet
in height, while today's turbines are mounted on towers 200 feet to 260
feet in height. Experts told us that the older turbines at Altamont
Pass have blades that reach lower to the ground, and thus can be more
hazardous to raptors as they swoop down to catch prey. Experts also
reasoned that the relative absence of raptor kills at newer facilities
with generally taller turbines supports the notion that these turbines
are less lethal to raptors. Third, the location of the wind turbine
facilities at Altamont Pass may have contributed to the high number of
raptor deaths. Studies show that there are a high number of raptors
that pass through the area, as well as an abundance of raptor prey at
the base of the turbines. In addition, the location of wind turbines on
ridge tops and canyons may increase the likelihood that raptors will
collide with turbines. Some experts note that one reason why other
parts of the country may not be experiencing high levels of raptor
mortality is partly because wind developers have used information from
Altamont Pass to site new turbines in hopes of avoiding similar
situations.
Studies Have Found Large Numbers of Bats Killed by Wind Turbines in
Appalachia:
Recent studies conducted in the eastern United States in the
Appalachian Mountains have found large numbers of bats killed by wind
power turbines. A 2004 study conducted in West Virginia estimated that
slightly over 2,000 bats were killed during a 7-month study at a
location with 44 turbines. More recently, a 2005 report that examined
wind resource areas both in West Virginia and Pennsylvania estimated
that about 2,000 bats were killed during a much shorter 6-week study
period at 64 turbines. Lastly, a study conducted of a small 3-turbine
wind facility in Tennessee estimated that bat mortality was about 21
bats per turbine, per year, raising concerns about the potential impact
on bats if more turbines are built in this area.
Various species of bats have been killed at these wind power facilities
and experts are concerned about impacts to bat populations if large
numbers of deaths continue. For example, one expert noted that "it is
alarming to see the number of bats currently being killed coupled with
the proposed number of wind power developments" in these areas. He
explained that bats live longer and have lower reproductive rates than
birds, and, therefore, bat populations may be more vulnerable to
impacts. In addition, there are proposals for hundreds of new wind
turbines along the Appalachian Mountains. A recent report from Bat
Conservation International estimated that if all ridge-top turbines are
approved and the mortality rates continue at their current rate, these
turbines might kill tens of thousands of bats in a single season.
Although none of the bats killed by wind power to date have been listed
as endangered species, FWS--recognizing the seriousness of the problem-
-has initiated a study with the U.S. Geological Survey to study bat
migration and to develop decision tools to provide assistance in
identifying locations for wind turbines and communication towers.
Studies Show That Bird and Bat Mortality from Wind Power in Other Parts
of the Country Is Comparatively Lower Than in California and
Appalachia:
Results from studies on bird and bat mortality from wind power
conducted in areas other than northern California and Appalachia have
not caused the same degree of concern as in these two locations. Our
review of studies conducted in areas other than the Appalachian
Mountains showed bat fatality rates ranging from 0 to 4.3 bats per
turbine, per year--compared with rates as high as 38 bats per turbine,
per a 6-week study period, in the Appalachian Mountains (see app. II).
Raptor fatalities outside Altamont Pass ranged from 0 to 0.07 raptors
per turbine, per year, whereas, rates in Altamont Pass ranged from 0.05
to 0.24. Our review of studies found that overall bird fatalities from
wind power ranged from 0 to 7.28 birds per turbine, per year. In
addition, a 2004 National Wind Coordinating Committee fact sheet shows
that an average of 2.3 birds per turbine, per year are killed at
facilities outside of California.[Footnote 8] However, it is important
to also look at the number of turbines and the vulnerability of the
species affected when interpreting these rates. For example, the high
rate of 7.28 overall bird fatalities per turbine was found at a
facility of only 3 wind turbines. Therefore, if no additional turbines
are built in this area, the overall impact to the bird populations may
be minimal; whereas, a lower fatality rate may cause impacts if there
are many turbines in that particular area. In addition, comparing study
findings can be difficult because researchers may use differing metrics
and many areas of the country remain unstudied with regard to avian and
bat impacts from wind power. While interpreting these statistics can be
complicated, the experts we spoke with agreed that outside of
California and Appalachia at the current level of wind power
development, the research to date has not shown bird or bat kills in
alarming numbers.
While the studies we reviewed showed relatively low levels of mortality
in many locations, there are also indirect impacts to wildlife from
wind power facilities. For example, construction of wind power
facilities may fragment habitat and disrupt feeding or breeding
behaviors. According to FWS, the loss of habitat quantity and quality
is the primary cause of declines in most assessed bird populations and
many other wildlife species. However, this review focuses on the direct
impacts of avian and bat mortality.
Several Gaps Exist in Research on Wind Power Facility Impacts on
Wildlife:
While experts told us that the impact of wind power facilities on
wildlife is more studied than other comparable infrastructure, such as
communication towers, important gaps in the research remain. First,
relatively few postconstruction monitoring studies have been conducted
and made publicly available. It appears that many wind power facilities
and geographic areas in the United States have not been studied at all.
For example, a bird advocacy group expressed concern at a recent
National Wind Coordinating Committee meeting that most of the wind
projects that have been monitored for bird impacts are in the west. The
American Wind Energy Association reports that there are hundreds of
wind power facilities currently operating elsewhere in the country.
However, we were able to locate only 19 postconstruction studies that
were conducted to assess direct impacts to birds or bats in 11
states.[Footnote 9] Texas, for example, is second only to California in
installed wind power capacity, but we were unable to find a single,
publicly available study investigating bird or bat mortality in that
state.
Lack of comprehensive data on bird and bat fatalities from wind
turbines makes it difficult to make national assessments of the impact
of wind turbines on wildlife. A 2001 analysis of studies estimated that
wind turbines in the United States cause roughly 33,000 avian deaths
per year.[Footnote 10] However, the authors noted that making
projections of the potential magnitude of wind power-related avian
fatalities is problematic, in part, because of the lack of long-term
data. The authors further noted that the data collected at older sites
may not be representative of newer facilities with more modern turbine
technology. In addition, FWS considers this estimate to be a "minimum"
to "conservative" estimate due to problems of data collection and
uneven regional representation. In addition to limiting assessments of
national impacts, a lack of data on actual mortality impacts siting
decisions for new facilities. Specifically, the conclusions of
postconstruction studies are often used when making preconstruction
predictions about the degree of harm to wildlife that is likely
expected from proposed facilities. If there are no local
postconstruction studies available, predictions of future mortality at
a proposed site must be based on information from studies conducted in
areas that may have different wildlife species, topography, weather
conditions, climate, soil types, and vegetative cover.
A second important research gap is in understanding what factors
increase the chances that turbines will be hazardous to wildlife. For
example, it can be difficult to discern, among other things, how the
number, location, and type of turbine; the number and type of species
in an area; species behavior; topography; and weather affect mortality
and why. Drawing conclusions about the degree of risk posed by certain
factors--such as terrain, weather, or type of turbine--is difficult
because sites differ in their combination of factors. For example,
according to experts, data are inadequate about what turbine types are
most hazardous and to what species. This is partly because most wind
power facilities use only one turbine type. Therefore, even if one
facility proved more hazardous than another, it would be difficult to
attribute the difference to turbine type alone because other variables,
such as topography or migratory patterns, are also likely to vary among
the sites. Additionally, comparisons between studies are difficult
because researchers may use different study methodologies. Therefore,
even if two sites had similar bird populations, topography, and weather
characteristics but different turbines, it would be difficult to
isolate the effect of the turbine if the scientists collecting the
information used differing methodologies.
Altamont Pass, however, has the potential to allow researchers to
determine which turbines are more hazardous because it contains many
different types of turbines in one place. However, even this analysis
has been complicated by confounding variables. For example, according
to experts, at one time it was commonly thought that turbines with
lattice towers killed more birds than turbines with tubular towers in
Altamont Pass; however, some studies have reached the opposite
conclusion. One study noted that although the authors found higher
mortality associated with lattice towers, this relationship might be
explained by factors such as the fact that lattice towers were found to
be in operation more frequently than were other towers, including
tubular towers, rather than the difference in the design of the towers.
Complicating matters still, some factors may be more hazardous for some
species than others. One study found that red-tailed hawk fatalities
occurred more frequently than expected at turbines located on
ridgelines than on hillsides. The authors found the reverse to be true
for golden eagles, demonstrating the difficulty of understanding
interactions between turbines and bird mortality from bird mortality
estimates alone.
A third research gap is the lack of complete and definitive information
on the interaction of bats with wind turbines. As previously noted,
bats have collided with wind turbines in significant numbers in some
parts of the United States, but scientists do not have a complete
understanding regarding why these collisions occur. Bats are known to
have the ability to echolocate to avoid collision with objects, and
they have been able to avoid colliding with comparable structures such
as meteorological towers.[Footnote 11] Therefore, their collision with
wind turbines remains a mystery. The few studies that have been
conducted show that most of the kills have taken place during the
migratory season (July through September), and this suggests that
migrating bats are involved in most of the fatalities. In addition, one
study showed that lower wind speeds were associated with higher
fatality rates. However, experts admit that much remains unknown about
why bats are attracted to and killed by turbines and about what
conditions increase the chances that bats will be killed. One expert
noted that there is still very little known about bat migration in
general and about the way in which bat interactions with turbines are
affected by weather patterns. This expert further noted that there
still has not been a full season of monitoring bat mortality from which
patterns can be identified.
Although scientists still do not know why bats are being killed in
large numbers by wind power turbines in some areas, several hypotheses
have been offered. One hypothesis states that the lighting on turbines
attracts insects, which in turn attracts bats, but studies have not
demonstrated differences in fatalities between lit turbines and unlit
turbines. Other hypotheses include the notions that bats may be
investigating wind turbines as potential roosting sites, that open
spaces around turbines create favorable foraging habitats, and that
migrating bats do not echolocate and thus are less able to avoid
collision. One thing bat experts agree on is the need for more
research.
In addition to these research gaps regarding bird and bat interactions
with turbines, very little is known about bird and bat populations in
general, such as their size and migratory pathways. An FWS official
told us that data are available regarding the migration routes and
habitat needs of only about one-third of the more than 800 bird species
that live in or pass through the United States each year. In addition,
bat researchers stressed to us that very little is known about the
pathways and behavior of migratory bats. This lack of information,
among other factors, makes it difficult to assess the cumulative
impacts from wind power on species populations. One expert noted that
many bird populations are in decline in general and additional losses
due to wind power may exacerbate this trend. However, it is very
difficult to attribute a decline in bird populations to wind power
specifically or to get good data on overall populations that span
international borders. Our literature search was only able to find one
study in the United States that examined the impact of fatalities from
wind power on a particular species population--golden eagles--and those
results have been described as relatively inconclusive, or mixed, by
other scientists. Without this kind of information, it can be difficult
to determine the appropriate public policy responses to wildlife
impacts due to wind power.
Although there are currently several gaps in the study of wind power's
direct impacts on birds and bats, FWS and the U.S. Geological Survey
have recently initiated a study of bird and bat migration behaviors to
address some of these data gaps. This study will use radar technology
to characterize daily and seasonal movements and habitat and landform
associations of migrating birds and bats, and will seek to develop
decision support tools to provide assistance in identifying locations
for wind turbines and communication towers. In addition, Congress has
appropriated funds for a National Academy of Sciences study on the
environmental impacts of wind power development in the Mid-Atlantic
Highlands that will include developing criteria for the siting of wind
turbines in this area. Finally, the Bats and Wind Energy Cooperative, a
partnership of Bat Conservation International, the American Wind Energy
Association, FWS, and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory,
continues to sponsor research on bats and wind turbines focusing on
acoustic deterrence methods and pre-and postconstruction risk
assessment at a planned wind farm in the Appalachian region.
Few Studies Have Been Conducted on Mitigation Measures:
Overall, there is much to be learned about mitigation strategies for
reducing impacts from wind power facilities on birds and bats, and some
strategies that once looked promising are now proving ineffective.
Specifically, we found that relatively few studies have examined
strategies for reducing the potential impacts of wind power on birds
and bats. Some of these studies were based on information collected
from birds in a laboratory setting, and, therefore, their conclusions
still need to be verified by conducting studies at actual wind power
facilities. One study examined the idea of addressing motion smear--the
inability of birds to see moving blades--by painting turbine blades to
make them more visible. This study indicated that color contrast was a
critical variable in helping birds to see objects like moving turbine
blades and recommended painting stripes on blades as a way to test
whether this could be an effective deterrent. Some developers adopted
this strategy; however, a recent study found that turbines with painted
blades were ineffective in reducing bird kills. Another laboratory-
based study tested bird reactions to noise and sound pressure and
suggested that whistles could make blades more audible to birds, while
making no measurable contribution to overall noise levels. However, the
authors of this study made no predictions about changes in bird flight
in response to hearing the noise and noted that field tests would be
required to test this hypothesis.
Although there have been relatively few laboratory-based experiments on
mitigation strategies, some strategies have already been attempted in
Altamont Pass. A recent 4-year study conducted by the California Energy
Commission in Altamont Pass tested some of these mitigation efforts
attempted by industry and suggested possible future mitigation
strategies. This study found that some of the strategies adopted by
industry, such as perch guards on turbines and rodent control programs
that reduce prey availability, were ineffective in reducing kills.
Another study compared the differences between turbines painted with
ultraviolet reflectant or nonultraviolet reflectant to see whether one
would act as a visual deterrent, but the study found no evidence of a
difference in mortality between the two treatments.
While there is less than adequate information on the effectiveness of
mitigation strategies from existing scientific research, the experts
with whom we spoke were hopeful about several strategies on the basis
of their experience in the field. Some of these experts noted that
because birds have been found to collide with electrical wires, wind
facilities should bury their transmission lines under ground and avoid
using guywires on their meteorological towers; such fixes have
generally been adopted. Although some studies have shown that there are
no differences in mortality rates for lit turbines versus unlit
turbines, some experts argue that, regardless, it is best to use low
lighting to avoid attracting birds that migrate at night. In addition,
researchers recommended that sodium vapor lights should never be used
at or near wind power facilities because they have commonly been shown
to attract birds to other structures. They noted that the largest
number of birds killed at one time near wind turbines was found
adjacent to sodium lights after a night of dense fog. No fatalities
have been discovered near these turbines since the lights were
subsequently turned off. Some researchers have observed that many bird
and bat kills occur during the time of year that has the lowest wind
production. For example, most bats are killed during the fall migration
season on low wind nights. Consequently, researchers suggested turning
off some turbines during these times in order to reduce kills. Perhaps
most importantly, many experts have noted that using preconstruction
studies on wildlife and their habitats can help identify locations for
wind turbines that are less likely to have adverse impacts.
Regulating Wind Power Facilities on Nonfederal Land Is Largely the
Responsibility of State and Local Governments:
Since most wind power development has occurred on nonfederal land,
regulating wind power facilities is largely a state and local
government responsibility. In the six states we reviewed, wind power
development is subject to local-level processes, state-level processes,
or a combination of the two. For example, in three of the six states,
local governments regulate the development of wind power and generally
require wind developers to adhere to local zoning ordinances and to
obtain special use permits before construction. The federal role in
regulating wind power development is limited to projects occurring on
federal lands or those that have some form of federal involvement, such
as projects that receive federal funding; to date, there have been
relatively few wind power projects on federal land. In these cases,
wind power projects must comply with federal laws as well as any
relevant state and local laws.
State and/or Local Governments Regulate Wind Power on Nonfederal Lands:
State and/or local governments regulate the development and operation
of wind power facilities on nonfederal lands. The primary permitting
jurisdiction for wind power facilities in many states is a local
planning commission, zoning board, city council, or county board of
supervisors or commissioners. Typically, these local jurisdictional
entities regulate wind projects under zoning ordinances and building
codes. In some states, one or more state agencies play a role in
regulating wind power development, such as natural resource and
environmental protection agencies, state historic preservation offices,
industrial development and regulation agencies, public utility
commissions, or siting boards. In addition, some states have
environmental laws that impose requirements on many types of
construction and development, including wind power, that state and
local agencies must follow. The regulatory scheme for wind power in the
six states we reviewed included all of these scenarios (see table 1).
Table 1: Type of Regulatory Process and Responsible Agency in Select
States:
State: California;
State/Local processes: Local-only;
Regulatory agency/authority: Local governments (are subject to the
state's environmental quality act, which requires assessment of
environmental impacts of proposed actions).
State: Minnesota;
State/Local processes: State and local;
Regulatory agency/authority: Local governments regulate facilities
under 5 megawatts, Minnesota Public Utility Commission regulates
facilities 5 megawatts or larger.
State: New York;
State/Local processes: Local-only;
Regulatory agency/authority: Local governments (are subject to the
state's environmental quality review act, which requires assessment of
environmental impacts of proposed actions).
State: Oregon;
State/Local processes: State and local;
Regulatory agency/authority: Local governments regulate facilities
under 105 megawatts (peak capacity), Oregon Energy Facility Siting
Council regulates facilities 105 megawatts or larger.
State: Pennsylvania;
State/Local processes: Local-only;
Regulatory agency/authority: Local governments.
State: West Virginia;
State/Local processes: State-only;
Regulatory agency/authority: Public Service Commission (though local
authorities could have some regulatory impact through zoning and
subsidies).
Source: GAO analysis of state and local data.
[End of table]
In the six states we reviewed, we found that approval for the
construction and operation of a wind power facility is typically
provided in permits that are often referred to as site, special use, or
conditional use permits or certificates. Such permits often include
various requirements, such as "setback" provisions--which stipulate how
far wind power turbines must be from other structures, such as roads
and residences--and decommissioning requirements that are intended to
ensure that once a wind power facility ceases operation, its structures
are removed and the landscape is restored according to a specific
standard. State and local regulations may require postconstruction
monitoring studies to assess a facility's impact on the environment. In
one state we reviewed, facilities are required to submit periodic
reports on issues related to its operation and impact on the
surrounding area.
In most of the six states we reviewed, state and local regulations
related to wind power are evolving as the industry has developed in the
states because government agencies realized that their existing
authorities were not applicable to wind power. For example, when wind
power began to emerge in Minnesota, an advisory task force held public
meetings to determine how to proceed in permitting development. In part
based on concerns raised from counties during these meetings,
responsibility for permitting larger facilities was given to the state.
In addition, West Virginia finalized new regulations for electric-
generating facilities in May 2005 that include provisions specific to
wind power facilities. Prior to this, the state made decisions on a
case-by-case basis. Similarly, the Pennsylvania Game Commission is
developing a policy for wind power development on its lands in response
to private interest in promoting renewable energy sources on state
property. Officials with the state's Department of Environmental
Protection also told us that they are examining a number of options,
including developing statewide rules and model ordinances that could be
adopted by local authorities.
Some state and local regulatory agencies we reviewed generally had
little experience or expertise in addressing environmental and wildlife
impacts from wind power. For example, officials in West Virginia told
us that they did not have the expertise to evaluate wildlife impacts
and review studies prior to construction, although such studies are
required. Instead, they said they rely on the public comment period
while permits are pending for concerns to be identified by others, such
as FWS and the state Division of Natural Resources. In addition,
Alameda County officials in California told us that they did not have
the expertise to assess the impacts of wind facility construction but
rely on technical consultants during the permitting stage, and that
they are planning to form a technical advisory committee for assistance
with postapproval monitoring. In some of the states we reviewed, state
agencies were conducting outreach efforts with local governments since
wind power development is still a relatively new industry for
regulators. These efforts typically focus on educating local regulators
about the issues that are often encountered during wind power
development and about how permitting can be handled. These efforts may
also include providing sample zoning ordinances and permits.
California:
California had the most installed wind power in the country, with 2,096
MW of generating capacity as of April 2005 and an additional planned
capacity of 365 MW. California was the first state in which large wind
farms were developed, beginning in the early 1980s. It is also one of
the few states with significant wind power development on federal land,
with over 250 MW on land owned by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM).
Aside from the facilities on BLM land, the state relies on local
governments to regulate wind power. In addition to the local permitting
process, the California Environmental Quality Act requires all state
and local government agencies to assess the environmental impacts of
proposed actions they undertake or permit.[Footnote 12] This law
requires agencies to identify significant environmental effects of a
proposed action and either avoid or mitigate significant environmental
effects, where feasible.
We met with officials from Alameda County and Contra Costa County,
which are home to the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area--at one time the
largest wind energy facility in the world. In both counties, local land
use ordinances allow wind power development on agricultural lands.
These counties originally issued conditional or land use permits to
various wind power developers in the 1980s that contained approval
conditions, including requirements for setbacks from property lines and
noise limits. As previously discussed, the Altamont Pass Wind Resource
Area was subsequently found to be responsible for the deaths of
numerous raptor species. The counties are currently renewing or
amending some of the permits for facilities in this area and will add
permit conditions in an attempt to reduce avian mortality. Alameda
County officials were working with various federal and state agencies,
environmental groups, and wind energy companies to agree on specific
permit conditions. At the time of this report, Alameda County has
recently approved a plan that is aimed at reducing bird deaths at
Altamont Pass by removing some existing turbines, turning off selected
turbines at certain times, implementing other habitat modification and
compensations measures, and gradually replacing existing turbines with
newer turbines. In addition, Contra Costa County had completed the
permitting for a wind power facility that included a number of
conditions to reduce avian mortality.
Minnesota:
Minnesota had 615 MW of installed wind generating capacity as of April
2005 and an additional planned capacity of 213 MW. Wind power
development in Minnesota is subject to either local or state permitting
procedures, depending on the size of the project. Local governments
generally issue conditional use permits or building permits to wind
power developers for facilities under 5 MW. We spoke with officials in
Pipestone County, which was the first in the state to adopt a wind
power ordinance. This ordinance focuses mainly on setbacks and
decommissioning requirements. In southwestern Minnesota--which includes
Pipestone County and most of the wind power development in the state--a
14-county renewable energy board is working to adopt a "model" wind
power permitting ordinance that would provide uniformity for regulating
development in the region. Two factors that officials cited in pursuing
such guidance is the recognition that development is likely to occur
under the 5 MW threshold for state permitting, and that wind power
developers would benefit from uniform regulations.
Between 1995 and the first half of 2005, the Minnesota Environmental
Quality Board--comprised of 1 representative from the governor's
office, 5 citizens, and the heads of 10 state agencies--was responsible
for regulating large wind energy systems that are 5 MW or larger,
studying environmental issues, and ensuring state agency compliance
with state environmental policy.[Footnote 13] Effective July 1, 2005,
authority for permitting these large wind energy systems was
transferred to the Minnesota Public Utilities Commission. The
commission requires, among other things, an analysis of the proposed
facility's potential environmental and wildlife impacts, proposed
mitigative measures, and any adverse environmental effects that cannot
be avoided. Instead of requiring individual wind developers to conduct
their own assessments of impacts to wildlife, Minnesota took a
different approach. Since much of the wind power development is
concentrated in the southwestern part of the state, the state
determined that it would be more efficient to conduct one large-scale
study, rather than requiring each developer to conduct individual
studies. Thus, the state required wind developers to participate in a 4-
year avian impact study at a cost of about $800,000 as well as a
subsequent 2-year bat study. The studies concluded that the impacts to
birds and bats from wind power are minimal. Therefore, on the basis of
the results of the state-required studies, state and local agencies in
Minnesota are not requiring postconstruction studies for wind power
development in this portion of the state. The costs for these studies
were charged back to individual wind developers on the basis of the
number of megawatts built or permitted within a specified time frame.
New York:
New York had three operating wind power facilities, with 49 MW of
installed wind generating capacity as of April 2005. An additional 350
MW of wind power capacity is planned for the state. According to state
officials, local governments permit the development of wind power in
the state using their zoning authorities. In addition to this local
permitting, the state has an environmental quality review act that
requires all state and local government agencies to assess the
environmental impacts of proposed actions, including issuing permits to
wind power facilities.[Footnote 14] This law requires that an
environmental impact statement be conducted if a proposed action is
determined to have a potentially significant adverse environmental
impact. Because wind power is still new to the state and there are a
significant number of proposed facilities, a state agency focused on
promoting energy development is beginning a program for educating local
communities about regulating wind power. This program includes examples
of zoning ordinances that have been used in other counties.
We met with officials from the Town of Fenner--in north-central New
York--which has the largest wind power facility in the state. On the
basis of complaints about noise from the first facility permitted by
the town, the local planning board now requires that turbines be
located a certain distance from residences. In order to comply with the
state's environmental law, the town conducted an environmental
assessment to determine the potential impacts of the proposed facility
and determined that the project would not have any significant adverse
environmental impacts or pose a significant risk to birds. However,
elsewhere in New York, approval of one wind power project is under
review given concerns expressed by environmental groups and the state
environmental and conservation agency about potential impacts to
migratory birds.
Oregon:
Oregon had five large wind projects, with a total of 263 MW of
installed wind power generating capacity as of April 2005 (see fig. 5).
Figure 5: Wind Power Facility in Sherman County, Oregon:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
Several new wind projects and expansions are under way or being planned
that would take total capacity in Oregon to more than 700 MW. Similar
to Minnesota, wind power regulation in Oregon is subject to either
local or state permitting procedures, depending on the size of the
project. Local governments issue conditional use permits for facilities
capable of generating up to 105 MW peak capacity. For example, in
Sherman County, the planning commission approved a 24 MW wind power
project near Klondike in north-central Oregon. Under its zoning
authority, the county attached various conditions to the project's
permit, including an avian postconstruction study, and decommissioning
and removal requirements. If projects exceed 105 MW peak capacity, they
are permitted by the Oregon Energy Facility Siting Council, which makes
decisions about issuing site certificates for energy facilities. The
siting council is a seven-member citizen commission that is appointed
by the governor. Wind power projects that are subject to the council's
jurisdiction must comply with the council's standards and applicable
statutes. Some of the standards are specific to wind power, such as
design and construction requirements to reduce visual and environmental
impacts.[Footnote 15] The council also ensures that wind power
facilities are constructed and operated in a manner consistent with
state rules, such as state fish and wildlife habitat mitigation goals
and standards, and local agency ordinances. In addition, regulations
protect against impacts on the surrounding community by requiring that
minimal lighting be used to reduce visual impacts, and protect some
bird species by requiring that developers avoid creating artificial
habitat for raptors or raptor prey. Also in Oregon, energy development-
-including wind power--must not adversely impact scenic and aesthetic
values and is prohibited in certain areas, such as state parks.
Pennsylvania:
Pennsylvania had 129 MW of installed wind generating capacity as of
April 2005 and applications for an additional 145 MW to be developed
(see fig. 6).
Figure 6: Wind Power Facility in Somerset County, Pennsylvania:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
In Pennsylvania, wind power is regulated by local governments; no state
agency has the authority to specifically regulate wind power
development. For example, in Somerset County, which is home to the
first wind power facility in the state, the county's planning
commission regulates wind power development through an ordinance that
allows for subdividing existing land. This ordinance contains
requirements for setbacks and decommissioning. Some county and state
officials have suggested that the state should provide a consistent
framework for wind power development. The state, through its
Pennsylvania Wind Working Group, is currently discussing whether there
should be uniform state-level siting guidelines or regulations for wind
power development. Pennsylvania was the only state of the six we
reviewed that did not have state-level requirements for environmental
assessments. However, one state official told us that many developers
have done some environmental studies--generally including wildlife,
noise, and protection of scenic vistas (i.e., viewshed)--in an attempt
to head off criticism or opposition to a proposed project.
West Virginia:
West Virginia had one operating wind power facility, with 66 MW of
installed wind power generating capacity and a planned additional
capacity of 300 MW for the state (see fig. 7). The state's Public
Service Commission has been the only agency involved in regulating wind
power to date, although state officials noted that local governments
could get involved through their zoning authorities. Prior to 2005,
West Virginia permitted construction and operation of wind power
facilities under laws and regulations designed to regulate utilities
providing electrical service directly to its citizens. Wind power
facilities are wholesale generators and do not provide service to
consumers, and according to commission officials, several provisions of
these regulations were not relevant to wind power facilities. As a
result, in 2003, the state amended the legislation to specifically
address the permitting of wholesale electric generators, such as wind
power.
Figure 7: Wind Power Facility in Tucker County, West Virginia:
[See PDF for image]
[End of figure]
West Virginia followed the regulations in place before the legislation
was amended to approve construction of the two wind power facilities in
the state; one of these facilities has yet to be constructed. During
the public comment periods for these facilities, concerns were raised
regarding potential impacts to wildlife. As a result, certain
conditions were required of the developers, such as prohibiting
turbines in certain locations and requiring postconstruction wildlife
studies.[Footnote 16] In May 2005, the state finalized new regulations
for wholesale electric-generating facilities that include provisions
specific to wind power facilities.[Footnote 17] For permitting wind
power facilities, West Virginia regulations now require spring and fall
avian migration studies, avian and bat risk assessments, and avian and
bat lighting studies.
Federal Government's Role in Regulating Wind Power Is Generally Limited
to Facilities on Federal Land:
The federal government's role in regulating wind power development is
limited to projects occurring on federal lands or projects that have
some form of federal involvement. While the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission regulates the interstate transmission of electricity,
natural gas, and oil, it does not approve the physical construction of
electric generation, transmission, or distribution facilities; such
approval is left for state and local governments. Certain standards
issued by the Federal Aviation Administration apply to wind power
facilities and other tall structures, on all lands. These standards are
intended to protect aircraft and specify the type of lighting that
should be used for structures of a certain height.
Since the majority of wind development to date has been on nonfederal
land or has not required federal funding or permits, the federal
government has had a limited role in regulating wind power facilities.
In those cases where federal agencies do regulate wind power, projects
must comply both with state and local requirements and with any
applicable federal law. At a minimum, these laws will include the
National Environmental Policy Act and the Endangered Species
Act.[Footnote 18] These laws often require preconstruction studies or
analyses of proposed projects, and possibly project modifications to
avoid adverse environmental effects. For example, if the development of
a proposed wind power project on federal land could impact wildlife
habitat and/or species protected under the Endangered Species Act,
permitting of the project would involve coordination and consultation
with FWS and/or the National Marine Fisheries Service to determine the
potential harm to species and the steps that may be necessary to avoid
or offset the harm.
To date, BLM has been the only federal agency with wind energy
production, with about 500 MW of installed wind power
capacity.[Footnote 19] This wind energy development is located in
Southern California in the San Gorgonio Pass and Tehachapi Pass areas,
and in the Foote Creek Rim and Simpson Ridge areas of Wyoming.[Footnote
20] According to BLM officials, as of June 2005, they had authorized 88
applications for wind energy development on their land and had 68
pending applications--most of which are in California and Nevada.
Energy development on BLM-administered lands is regulated through its
process for granting private parties access to federal lands, which is
referred to as granting a "right-of-way authorization." BLM's Interim
Wind Energy Development Policy establishes the requirements for
granting these authorizations to wind energy facilities. This policy
requires that all proposed facilities conduct the necessary assessments
and analyses required by the National Environmental Policy Act, the
Endangered Species Act, and other appropriate laws. In one case, some
changes have been made to the location of some wind power turbines
because of potential impacts to avian species that were identified
during these preconstruction studies.
Because of an increased focus on developing energy sources on public
lands, BLM has proposed revising their interim policy by developing a
wind energy development program that would establish comprehensive
policies and best management practices for addressing wind energy
development. As a part of this effort, BLM issued a programmatic
environmental impact statement in June 2005 that assesses the social,
environmental, and economic impacts of wind power development on BLM
land. This document also identifies best management practices for
ensuring that the impacts of wind energy development on BLM lands are
kept to a minimum. While subsequent proposed wind power facilities will
still need to conduct some environmental assessments, they can rely on
BLM's programmatic assessment for much of the needed analyses. BLM
hopes that the availability of this assessment will enable wind power
development to proceed more quickly on its lands, assuming that such
development complies with needed requirements.
Federal and State Laws Protect Wildlife:
As with any other activity, federal and state laws afford protections
to wildlife from wind power. Three federal laws--the Migratory Bird
Treaty Act, the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, and the
Endangered Species Act--generally forbid harm to various species of
wildlife. While each of the laws allows some exceptions to this, only
the Endangered Species Act includes provisions that would permit a wind
power facility to kill a protected species under certain circumstances.
While wildlife mortality events have occurred at wind power facilities,
the federal government has not prosecuted any cases against wind power
companies under these wildlife laws, preferring instead to encourage
companies to take mitigation steps to avoid future harm. Regarding
state wildlife protections, all of the six states we reviewed had
statutes that can be used to protect some wildlife from wind power
impacts. However, similar to FWS, no states have taken any
prosecutorial actions against wind power facilities where mortalities
have occurred.
Various Wildlife Protections Are Provided by Three Federal Laws:
The primary federal regulatory framework for protecting wildlife from
impacts from wind power includes three laws--the Migratory Bird Treaty
Act, the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, and the Endangered
Species Act. (See table 2.)
Table 2: Federal Wildlife Protection Laws:
Federal wildlife law: Migratory Bird Treaty Act;
Protections: Prohibits the taking, killing, possession, transportation,
and importation of over 860 migratory birds, their eggs, parts, and
nests, except when specifically authorized by FWS;
Permits: Authorizes permits for some activities, including but not
limited to, scientific collecting, depredation, propagation, and
falconry; No permit provisions for "incidental take";
Penalties for violations: Only criminal penalties are possible, with
violators subject to fine and/or imprisonment.
Federal wildlife law: Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act;
Protections: Prohibits the taking and sale of bald and golden eagles
and their eggs, parts, and nests, except when specifically authorized
by FWS;
Permits: Authorizes permits for scientific or exhibition purposes, or
religious purposes by Indian tribes; and for other purposes; No permit
provisions for "incidental take";
Penalties for violations: Civil and criminal penalties are possible,
with violators subject to civil penalties, fines, and/or imprisonment.
Federal wildlife law: Endangered Species Act;
Protections: Protects about 1,265 species that have been determined to
be at risk for extinction, referred to as threatened or endangered
species; prohibits the taking of protected animal species, including
actions that "harm" or "harass"; federal actions may not jeopardize
listed species or adversely modify habitat designated as critical;
Permits: Authorizes permits for the "taking" of protected species if
the permitted activity is for scientific purposes, is to establish
experimental populations, or is incidental to an otherwise legal
activity, such as construction of wind turbines;
Penalties for violations: Civil and criminal penalties are possible,
with violators subject to civil penalties, fines, and/or imprisonment.
Source: GAO analysis of federal laws.
[End of table]
FWS is primarily responsible for ensuring the implementation and
enforcement of these laws.[Footnote 21] In general, these laws prohibit
various actions that are deemed harmful to certain species. For
example, each law prohibits killing or "taking" a protected species,
unless done under circumstances that are expressly allowed by statute
and authorized via issuance of a federal permit. The Endangered Species
Act may also prohibit actions that harm a protected species' habitat.
In addition, each federal agency that takes actions that have or are
likely to have negative impacts on migratory bird populations are
directed by Executive Order 13186, "Responsibilities of Federal
Agencies to Protect Migratory Birds," to work with FWS to develop
memorandums of understanding to conserve those species. While the
executive order was signed on January 10, 2001, no memorandums have yet
been signed. Wildlife species that fall outside the scope of these
three laws, such as many species of bats, are generally not protected
under federal law. However, FWS is not only responsible for ensuring
the survival of species protected by specific laws, but also for
conserving and protecting all wildlife.
All three of the federal wildlife protection laws prohibit most
instances of "take," although each law provides for some exceptions,
such as scientific purposes. The Endangered Species Act is the least
restrictive of these laws in that it authorizes FWS to permit some
activities that take a protected species as long as the take meets
several requirements, including a requirement that the take be
incidental to an otherwise legal activity. Wind power facilities may
seek an incidental take permit under this act for facilities sited on
private land or where no federal funding is used or federal permit is
required. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act and the Bald and Golden Eagle
Protection Act also allow permits for take, but incidental take of
migratory birds is not allowed. Under all three statutes, unauthorized
takings may be penalized, even if the offender had no intent to harm a
protected species.[Footnote 22]
Although not required by these federal laws, in some cases, state or
local entities that regulate wind power, or wind power developers
themselves, will consult with FWS for information on protected species
or advice on how to ensure that wind power facilities will not harm
wildlife. For example, in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, Alameda
County officials and the companies operating wind facilities there have
asked FWS for technical assistance related to renewing permits for
existing wind power facilities. FWS officials told us that their
technical assistance in Altamont Pass is aimed at avoiding or
minimizing potential impacts to threatened or endangered species under
the Endangered Species Act. In addition, FWS officials from the New
York field office told us that they are asked to provide input on wind
power proposals during the state's environmental review process. These
officials noted that they will likely not be able to review all of the
wind power development proposals in the state due to staffing
constraints. Similarly, FWS officials in five of the six states we
reviewed told us that they have not conducted outreach to state or
local regulators to inform them of the potential for wildlife impacts
from wind power primarily because of workload constraints. If state and
local regulators do not consult with FWS during the regulatory process,
it can be difficult for FWS to encourage actions that might reduce
wildlife deaths before wind turbines are sited.
Federal Government Uses Prosecutorial Discretion in Dealing with
Wildlife Mortality:
Although FWS investigates all "take" of federal trust species, the
government has elected not to prosecute wind energy companies for
violations of wildlife laws at this time. In most of the states we
reviewed, there were relatively few law enforcement officials, and they
told us that they often had higher priority violations of federal
wildlife laws than mortality events due to wind power, particularly
given the relatively low levels of mortality that have occurred in most
wind power locations. In West Virginia, the agent-in-charge told us
that most of his time is spent on the commercialization of wildlife,
such as the illegal import and export and interstate commerce of
protected species; illegal hunting is also a major problem,
particularly for bears and eagles. FWS law enforcement officials in all
of the six states we reviewed told us that in cases of violations, they
prefer to work cooperatively with the owners of wind power facilities
to try to get them to take voluntary actions to address impacts on
wildlife, rather than pursuing prosecution; however, other cases of
wildlife violations, such as illegal trade in protected species, are
pursued via prosecution.
FWS has been investigating and monitoring avian mortality at Altamont
Pass for nearly 20 years, including the mortality of many protected
species, such as golden eagles and other raptors.[Footnote 23] Since
that time, FWS has opened investigations and tried to work with the
owners of wind power facilities to reduce the level of mortality. In
the earlier years, some avian mortality was due to electrocutions along
power lines. FWS had been working with electrical utility companies to
resolve this problem elsewhere, and several relatively easy "fixes"
were known to reduce electrocutions. As a result of official
correspondence and conversations between FWS and company officials,
many companies implemented these fixes, and avian mortality due to
electrocutions has been reduced. However, large numbers of birds,
particularly raptors, were still being killed due to actual collisions
with wind turbines. On several occasions, FWS expressed concern about
these mortalities to wind power companies and Alameda County--the
county government with the most wind power development in California.
In response, Alameda County and some wind power companies have
conducted avian monitoring studies and tested several mitigation
measures, including painting turbine blades, installing perch guards on
lattice-work towers, and conducting rodent control. However, these
actions appear to have no significant impact on reducing avian
mortality. Since January 2004, the wind power companies have worked
together to develop an adaptive management plan for reducing avian
mortality at Altamont Pass. The plan contains various mitigation
measures, such as (1) removing old turbines and replacing them with
fewer, new turbines and (2) implementing a partial seasonal shutdown of
turbines.
Over the past 6 years, FWS has referred about 50 instances of golden
eagles killed by 30 different companies in Altamont Pass either to the
Interior Solicitor's office for civil prosecution or to the Department
of Justice for criminal prosecution. Officials noted that, in general,
prosecutions by both the Departments of the Interior and Justice focus
on companies that kill birds with disregard for their actions and the
law, especially when conservation measures are available but have not
been implemented. Despite the recurring nature of the avian mortality
in Altamont Pass and concerns from federal, state, and local officials,
no prosecutions pursuant to federal wildlife laws have been taken
against any wind power companies. Justice has not pursued prosecution
in these cases, although they currently have an open investigation on
avian mortality in Altamont Pass. As a matter of policy, Justice does
not discuss the reasons behind specific case declinations, nor does it
typically confirm or deny the existence of potential or actual
investigations. However, Justice officials told us that, in general,
when deciding to prosecute a case criminally, they consider a number of
factors, including the history of civil or administrative enforcement,
the evidence of criminal intent, and what steps have been taken to
avoid future violations. Regarding the matters that FWS referred for
civil enforcement, Interior's regional solicitor has also not pursued
prosecution in any of these cases. Interior's Office of the Solicitor
San Francisco field office declined to pursue the most recent civil
referrals because Justice agreed to review turbine mortalities for
possible criminal prosecution. Some citizen groups remain concerned
about the lack of enforcement of federal and state wildlife
protections. For example, in November 2004, the Center for Biological
Diversity filed a lawsuit against the wind power companies in Altamont
Pass to seek restitution for the killing of raptors.[Footnote 24]
In addition to the avian mortalities at Altamont Pass, significant
wildlife mortality has also occurred at wind power locations in the
Appalachian Mountains in West Virginia and Pennsylvania in 2003 and
2004. FWS has reviewed high numbers of bat kills; however, these bat
species are not protected under federal law. Several studies have been
completed or are under way in these regions to better determine the
potential causes of the mortality events and how future events might be
mitigated. The FWS law enforcement agent-in-charge in West Virginia
told us that he has contacted wind power developers of some of the
proposed facilities in the state about potential violations of federal
wildlife laws should an endangered bat or other protected species be
killed. The agent said that he prefers to have early involvement with
wind power facilities, rather than wait for violations to occur.
FWS law enforcement officials told us that the way they have handled
avian mortalities at wind power facilities is similar to how they deal
with wildlife mortality caused by other industries. These officials
explained that FWS recognizes that man-made structures will generally
result in some level of unavoidable incidental take of wildlife and, as
a result, FWS reserves a level of "enforcement discretion" in
determining whether to pursue a violation of federal wildlife law. Law
enforcement officials told us that before FWS pursues civil or criminal
penalties, the agency prefers to work with a company to encourage them
to take mitigation and conservation steps to avoid future harm. If a
company shows a good-faith effort to reduce impacts, FWS will likely
not refer such a case for prosecution. If, however, a company
repeatedly refuses to take steps suggested by FWS, officials said they
are likely to refer it for prosecution.
Work that FWS has done with the electric power industry illustrates
this approach to resolving impacts to wildlife. FWS began working with
the electric power industry in the early 1980s to reduce significant
avian mortality due to collisions with and electrocutions at power
lines, particularly mortality events involving eagles and other large
birds. Pursuant to investigations of avian mortality at power lines and
conversations with individual companies, solutions were identified that
reduced mortality events. Because these solutions were relatively
inexpensive and generally easy to install based on scientific testing-
-and were known to work--FWS law enforcement officials expected other
electric line companies to install them. According to law enforcement
officials, the threat of a potential conviction under the Migratory
Bird Treaty Act or the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act was
generally enough to get companies to voluntarily install the fixes
without FWS prosecuting them. However, by the late 1980s, some electric
companies were aware of mortalities due to electrocutions but were not
taking actions to resolve the causes. The federal government in 1998
charged an electric utility cooperative--the Moon Lake Electric
Association in Colorado and Utah--with criminal violations of these two
laws. This is the first and only instance of a federal criminal
prosecution of an electric power line company under any of the three
federal wildlife protection laws. Civil cases have been filed and out-
of-court agreements have been reached with other electric utilities for
similar cases of wildlife mortalities.
FWS Has Taken Some Proactive Steps to Help Minimize the Impacts of Wind
Power on Wildlife:
Even though FWS does generally not have a direct role in determining
whether and how wind power facilities are permitted, FWS has been
involved for about 20 years with the wind power industry to help avoid
and minimize impacts to wildlife from wind power development. FWS's
work has been in the following three main areas--participating on a
national wind working group and in technical workshops, and issuing
guidance.
Working Group:
An FWS senior management official has been a member of the National
Wind Coordinating Committee since 1997. The wildlife workgroup serves
as an advisory group for national research on wind-avian issues and a
forum for defining, discussing, and addressing wind power-wildlife
interaction issues. The workgroup has facilitated five national avian-
wind power planning workshops to define needed research and explore
current issues. The most recent workshop also included discussions of
bat-wind turbine interactions. In addition, the working group released
a report in December 1999, Studying Wind Energy/Bird Interaction: A
Guidance Document, that includes metrics and methods for determining or
monitoring potential impacts on birds at existing and proposed wind
energy sites.
Workshops:
FWS officials have participated in industry-sponsored workshops and
conferences. For example, a senior FWS official presented information
on cumulative impacts on wildlife from wind power at a 2004 workshop
cosponsored by the American Wind Energy Association and the American
Bird Conservancy. Another FWS official presented information on the
agency's experience and expectations for regional wildlife issues at a
national workshop on wind power siting sponsored by the wind
association. FWS also helped to sponsor and organize, and participated
in, a 2004 bats and wind power technical workshop attended by both wind
industry representatives and researchers. As a result, FWS was
instrumental in establishing the Bats and Wind Energy Cooperative
discussed elsewhere in the report.
Guidance:
In July 2003, in an effort to inform wind power developers about the
potential impacts to wildlife and encourage them to take mitigating
actions before construction, FWS issued interim voluntary guidelines
for industry to use in developing new projects. FWS developed the
interim guidelines in response to the Department of the Interior's push
to expand renewable energy development on public lands. The wind power
interim guidelines are intended to assist FWS staff in providing
technical assistance to the wind energy industry to avoid or minimize
impacts to wildlife and their habitats through (1) proper evaluation of
potential wind energy development sites, (2) proper location and design
of turbines, and (3) pre-and postconstruction research and monitoring
to identify and assess impacts to wildlife. The voluntary guidelines
were open for public comment for a 2-year period that ended on July 10,
2005. At the time of this report, FWS had received numerous comments
from the wind industry on the guidelines. In general, industry
representatives thought that the guidelines were overly restrictive--to
a degree not supported by the relative risk that wind power development
poses to wildlife compared with other sources of mortality. FWS also
had received comments from other groups--such as the Ripley Hawk Watch,
the Clean Energy States Alliance, the Humane Society of the United
States, the Massachusetts and Pennsylvania Audubon, the American Bird
Conservancy, Defenders of Wildlife, and Chautaqua County Environmental
Management Council--that were generally in support of the guidance or
recommended that it be put into regulation. BLM also provided comments
and expressed some concerns over the review process outlined in the
guidelines. FWS will be reviewing and incorporating the public,
industry, and agency comments received on the interim guidelines as
appropriate in order to revise and improve them, and will solicit
additional public input before disseminating a final version.
In addition, FWS recently began developing a template for a letter to
be sent to wind power project applicants to alert them to federal
wildlife protection laws, FWS's interim guidance, and FWS's role in
protecting wildlife. FWS officials told us that they hope the letter
will assist developers in making informed decisions regarding site
selection, project design, and compliance with applicable laws. The
availability of a ready-to-use template is important because most field
officials told us that working with the wind power industry is just one
of many responsibilities in FWS offices that often do not have enough
staff, given their workloads. Field officials also noted that if wind
power developers, their consultants, or state or local regulatory
agencies do not contact them, they may not know about wind power
projects until there is a problem with an operating facility.
All Six States We Reviewed Have Wildlife Protections:
Although federal jurisdiction for migratory birds has not been
delegated to the states and primary responsibility for the protection
of these birds resides with Interior, all states we reviewed had
additional wildlife protections. Responsibility for protecting species
and implementing wildlife laws and regulations is typically found in a
state's natural resource protection agency. In some states, however,
responsibility is assigned according to the type of species addressed.
For example, in some states, agriculture departments address plant
issues, while in other states, fish and boat commissions address fish,
amphibian, and reptile issues; in these cases, wildlife agencies
typically address the remaining species.
In all six states, the most common laws related to wildlife protection-
-and likely the most utilized wildlife laws--are those that govern
hunting and fishing. These laws and regulations may include limits on
the type and number of species that can be killed and the manner in
which they can be taken. In addition to identifying the species that
can be hunted or fished, the six states we reviewed identify as
threatened or endangered specific species that are at risk for
extinction or extirpation in their state. These states also identify
"species of concern" or rare species. Such species are identified as a
way to provide an early warning signal for species that are not yet
endangered or threatened, but could become so in the future.
All of the six states we reviewed have laws that provide at least some
degree of protection for species that are at risk of extinction or
extirpation in their state. These protections generally go beyond what
the federal Endangered Species Act provides by protecting more species
than are protected under the federal law, although the protections may
not be as extensive. In the five states that have specific protections,
protection is provided through prohibitions on taking a protected
species. In some cases, these protections are only applicable under
certain circumstances. For example, in Oregon, protections apply only
to state actions or on state-owned or -managed lands. All of the state
laws or regulations that include take prohibitions, also include
exceptions for when permits can be issued in order to allow the take to
occur. Such permits are issued according to prescribed conditions or on
a case-by-case basis. Two of the six states also provide protections
for habitat. In West Virginia, the primary protection for wildlife,
aside from hunting and fishing regulations, is a prohibition on the
commercial sale of wildlife and specific protection for bald and golden
eagles.
Most of the states' wildlife protection laws for threatened and
endangered species include enforcement provisions. In some cases, these
laws identify violations as misdemeanor crimes. Similar to FWS law
enforcement's approach to wind power, we found that state agencies had
not taken any prosecutorial actions in response to wildlife mortalities
at wind power facilities. Instead, many state officials told us that
they prefer--like FWS--to work with developers to try to identify
solutions to the causes of mortality. For example, in Minnesota, after
impacts to native prairie grass caused by a wind power facility were
discovered, the state natural resource agency required the facility to
purchase additional habitat elsewhere to compensate for the loss. In
California, Alameda County has worked with wind power facilities and
others, and recently approved a plan that is aimed at reducing bird
deaths at Altamont Pass by having wind power companies turn off
selected turbines at certain times and replace some turbines with newer
turbines.
State natural heritage programs serve as key sources of information on
wildlife for federal and state wildlife protection agencies. All six of
the states we reviewed have natural heritage programs that manage
information on natural resources, including threatened and endangered
species (all 50 states have such programs). These programs are part of
an international effort to gather and share information on biological
resources. This effort has slightly different designations and criteria
for identifying imperiled species and habitat than the federal
Endangered Species Act. In five of the states we reviewed, the natural
heritage program is run by the states' natural resource agencies; in
the sixth state, Oregon, it is run by a university. Although West
Virginia does not have a state endangered species law and protects only
bald and golden eagles, it does identify other imperiled species
through its natural heritage program.
State natural resource agencies--which typically house the natural
heritage programs--are sometimes consulted by a state or local wind
power regulator or a wind power developer during the permitting process
for help in identifying potentially sensitive species or concerns about
possible impacts to wildlife in general. For example, staff from West
Virginia's natural resources agency were involved in reviewing wildlife
monitoring studies conducted by the first wind power facility in the
state. During the consultation process on another proposed facility in
the state, agency staff requested that certain studies be conducted
because of concerns about impacts on bat populations. Similarly, in
Minnesota, natural resource agency staff requested changes in the
location, construction, and operation of certain proposed wind power
turbines through the state's environmental review process. However, in
some cases, the process for regulators or wind power developers to
consult with natural resource agency staff on wildlife is often an
informal one and is not necessarily required by states' species
protections or laws and regulations used to permit wind power.
Conclusions:
In the context of other sources of avian mortalities, it does not
appear that wind power is responsible for a significant number of bird
deaths. While we do not know a lot about the relative impacts of bat
mortality from wind power relative to other sources, significant bat
mortality from wind power has occurred in Appalachia. However, much
work remains before scientists have a clear understanding of the true
impacts to wildlife from wind power. Scientists, in particular, are
concerned about the potential cumulative impacts of wind power on
species populations if the industry expands as expected. Such concerns
may be well-founded because significant development is proposed in
areas that contain large numbers of species or are believed to be
migratory flyways. Concerns are compounded by the fact that the
regulation of wind power varies from location-to-location and some
state and local regulatory agencies we reviewed generally had little
experience or expertise in addressing the environmental and wildlife
impacts from wind power. In addition, given the relatively narrow
regulatory scope of state and local agencies, it appears that when new
wind power facilities are permitted, no one is considering the impacts
of wind power on a regional or "ecosystem" scale--a scale that often
spans governmental jurisdictions. FWS, in its responsibility for
protecting wildlife, is the appropriate agency for such a task and in
fact does monitor the status of species populations, to the extent
possible. However, because wildlife, federally protected birds in
particular, face a multitude of threats, many of which are better
understood than wind power, FWS officials told us that they generally
spend a very small portion of their time assessing the impacts from
wind power. Nonetheless, FWS has taken some steps to reach out to the
wind power industry by, among other things, issuing voluntary
guidelines to encourage conservation and mitigation actions at new wind
power facilities. In addition, FWS and the U.S. Geological Survey are
initiating some studies to capture data on migratory flyways to help
determine where the most potential harm from wind power might occur and
to gather data for use in assessing wind power's cumulative impacts on
species. Although these are valuable steps in educating industry and
improving science, FWS has conducted only limited outreach to state and
local regulators about minimizing impacts from wind power on wildlife
and informing them about species that may be particularly vulnerable to
impacts from wind power. Such outreach is important because these are
the entities closest to the day-to-day decisions regarding where wind
power will be allowed on nonfederal land.
Recommendations for Executive Action:
Given the potential for future cumulative impacts to wildlife species
due to wind power and the limited expertise or experience that local
and state regulators may have in this area, we recommend that the
Secretary of the Interior direct the Director of the FWS to develop
consistent communication for state and local wind power regulators.
This communication should alert regulators to (1) the potential
wildlife impacts that can result from wind power development; (2) the
various resources that are available to help them make decisions about
permitting such facilities, including FWS state offices, states'
natural resource agencies, and FWS's voluntary interim guidelines--and
any subsequent revisions--on avoiding and minimizing wildlife impacts
from wind turbines; and (3) any additional information that FWS deems
appropriate.
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation:
We provided copies of our draft report to the Department of the
Interior and received written comments. (See app. III for the full text
of the comments received and our responses.) Interior officials stated
that they generally agree with our findings and our recommendation in
the report. We also sent portions of the report to state and local
regulators and state wildlife protection agencies. Many of these
entities provided technical comments, which we incorporated as
appropriate. Interior also provided technical comments, which we
incorporated where appropriate.
Interior officials agreed in most part with our recommendation to
develop consistent communication to deliver to state and local wind
power regulators. However, they stated that because the comment period
on the FWS voluntary interim guidelines has closed and final guidelines
have yet to be developed, it would be inappropriate to include these in
such communication. However, because FWS is currently disseminating the
voluntary interim guidelines on wind power to its field offices to
share with regulators and developers, we believe that it is appropriate
to include reference to this document in communications to local and
state regulators. As Interior noted, these voluntary guidelines are
currently undergoing review and revision. Therefore, it would be
appropriate to draw attention to this fact in any such communication
and to provide information about how the most current version might be
accessed.
As agreed with your offices, unless you publicly announce the contents
of this report earlier, we plan no further distribution until 30 days
from the report date. At that time, we will send copies of this report
to the Secretary of the Interior, as well as to appropriate
congressional committees and other interested Members of Congress. We
also will make copies available to others upon request. In addition,
the report will be available at no charge on the GAO Web site at
[Hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov].
If you or your staffs have questions about this report, please contact
me at (202) 512-3841. Contact points for our Offices of Congressional
Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this
report. Key contributors to this report are listed in appendix IV.
Signed by:
Robin M. Nazzaro:
Director, Natural Resources and Environment:
[End of section]
Appendixes:
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology:
On the basis of a June 22, 2004, request from the Ranking Democratic
Members--House Resources Committee and the House Appropriations
Subcommittee on Science, the Departments of State, Justice, and
Commerce and Related Agencies--and of subsequent discussions with their
staffs, we reviewed wind energy development and impacts on wildlife.
Specifically, we assessed (1) what available studies and experts have
reported about the impacts of wind power facilities on wildlife in the
United States and what can be done to mitigate or prevent such impacts,
(2) the roles and responsibilities of government agencies in regulating
wind power facilities, and (3) the roles and responsibilities of
government agencies in protecting wildlife from the risks posed by wind
power facilities.
To determine what available studies and experts have reported about the
direct impacts of wind power facilities on wildlife, we reviewed
scientific studies and reports on the subject that were conducted by
government agencies, industry, and academics. Our review focused on
wildlife mortality as opposed to indirect impacts, which include
habitat modification and disruption of feeding or breeding behaviors
due to wind power facilities. We used several criteria to select
studies for review. We chose studies that included original data
analyses (rather than summaries of existing literature) conducted in
the United States since 1990, and we primarily focused on the impact of
wind power on birds and bats and/or ways in which to mitigate those
impacts. We did not include preconstruction assessments of wildlife
impacts in our review. We excluded studies that had preliminary
findings when there was a more recent version available. We located
studies using a database search with keywords of "wind power" and
"birds," "bats," or "wildlife" in the following databases: AGRICOLA,
DOE Information Bridge, National Environmental Publications
Information, Energy Citations Database, Energy Research Abstracts,
Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management, and JSTOR. In
addition, we located studies using bibliographies of other studies and
through publicly available lists of studies from the National Wind
Coordinating Committee, the California Energy Commission, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, and Bat Conservation International. We
shared our list of studies with experts and asked them to identify any
studies missing from our list. When studies were not publicly
available, we contacted the authors and attempted to obtain copies.
Using these methods and criteria, we obtained 31 studies. We reviewed
the studies' methodology, assumptions, limitations, and conclusions for
the purposes of excluding studies that did not ensure a minimal level
of methodological rigor.[Footnote 25] We excluded 1 study, leaving 30
studies that are used in this work. In addition to these studies, we
also reviewed two summaries of studies produced by the National Wind
Coordinating Committee. Generally, we did not directly use these two
summary studies, we did use them as a check for our conclusions and
findings in relation to the studies we reviewed.[Footnote 26] We also
interviewed experts and study authors from the Department of the
Interior's U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), state government
agencies, academia, wind industry, and conservation groups and obtained
their views on the risks of wind power facilities to migratory birds
and other wildlife and on ways in which to minimize these risks.
To determine the roles and responsibilities of government agencies in
regulating wind power facilities, we identified and evaluated relevant
federal laws and regulations for wind power development. We reviewed a
nonprobability sample of six states with wind power development--
California, Minnesota, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and West
Virginia. We selected these states to reflect a range in installed
capacity, different regulatory processes, a history of wind power
development, and geographic distribution and to reflect our requesters'
interests. For these states, we identified and evaluated relevant state
and local laws and regulations for wind power development. We
interviewed federal officials from FWS, Bureau of Land Management, and
Interior's Office of the Solicitor as well as officials from the
Department of Justice. We interviewed officials from FWS headquarters
and from field office locations in the six states that we selected. We
also interviewed officials from various state agencies, such as the
Oregon State Siting Council and the West Virginia Public Service
Commission, and from local and county governments that were responsible
for issuing permits or certificates for the development of wind power
facilities in their states. Finally, we visited wind power facilities
in California, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia and
interviewed wind industry company officials.
To determine the roles and responsibilities of government agencies in
protecting wildlife from the risks posed by wind power facilities, we
identified and evaluated relevant federal, environmental, and wildlife
protection laws and regulations. We interviewed FWS law enforcement
officials from headquarters and the six states that we reviewed. For
the six states that we selected, we identified and evaluated relevant
state and local environmental and wildlife protection laws. We also
interviewed officials from state environmental and wildlife agencies in
California, Minnesota, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and West
Virginia.
We conducted our work between December 2004 and July 2005 in accordance
with generally accepted government auditing standards, including an
assessment of data reliability and internal controls.
[End of section]
Appendix II: Studies of Bird, Bat, and Raptor Fatality Rates, by
Region:
Table 3 includes only studies where calculating bird or bat mortality
was a primary goal. Some studies may contain more than one study
location.
Table 3: Studies of Bird, Bat, and Raptor Fatality Rates, by Region:
Region: Pacific NW;
Location and year: Stateline, OR - 2003;
Number of turbines: 181;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 1.93;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 1.12;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.06.
Location and year: Nine Canyon, OR - 2003;
Number of turbines: 37;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 3.59;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 3.21;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.07.
Location and year: Klondike, OR - Phase I - 2003;
Number of turbines: 16;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 1.16[A];
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 1.16;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.
Location and year: Vansycle, OR - 2000;
Number of turbines: 38;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 0.63;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 0.74;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.
Region: West;
Location and year: Foote Creek Rim, WY - 2003;
Number of turbines: 69;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 1.5;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 1.34;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.03.
Location and year: National Wind Tech Center, CO - 2003;
Number of turbines: Varies;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 0 ;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 0;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.
Region: California;
Location and year: Altamont Pass, CA - (Thelander et al) - 2003;
Number of turbines: 5,400;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 0.19;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: ***;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Location and year: Altamont Pass, CA - (CEC) - 2004;
Number of turbines: 5,400;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 0.87;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 0.004;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.24.
Location and year: Altamont Pass and Solano County, CA - 1992;
Number of turbines: 7,340;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: *** ;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: ***;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.058 (1989) 0.025 (1990).
Location and year: Altamont Pass, CA - 1991;
Number of turbines: 3,000;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: *** ;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: ***;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.047[B].
Location and year: Montezuma Hills, CA - 1992;
Number of turbines: 600;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 0.074[B];
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: ***;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.047[B].
Region: Midwest ;
Location and year: Buffalo Ridge, MN - P1 - 2000;
Number of turbines: 73;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 0.98;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 0.26;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Location and year: Buffalo Ridge, MN - P2 - 2000;
Number of turbines: 143;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 2.27;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 1.78;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Location and year: Buffalo Ridge, MN - P3 - 2000;
Number of turbines: 138;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 4.45;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 2.04;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Location and year: Buffalo Ridge, MN - (Osborn et al) - 2000;
Number of turbines: 73;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 0.33-0.66;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: *** ;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: *** .
Location and year: Buffalo Ridge, MN - (Bats) - 2004;
Number of turbines: 281;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: ***;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 3.02 (2001) 1.3 (2002);
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Location and year: Northeastern, WI - 2002;
Number of turbines: 31;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 1.29;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 4.26;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.
Location and year: Top of Iowa - 2004;
Number of turbines: 89;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 0.12[C];
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 1.88[C];
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Region: Northeast;
Location and year: Searsburg, VT - 2002;
Number of turbines: 11;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 0;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: ***;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: 0.
Region: Appalachian Mt. Region;
Location and year: Mountaineer, WV - 2004;
Number of turbines: 44;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 4.04[D];
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 47.53[D];
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Location and year: Tennessee - 2005;
Number of turbines: 3;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: 7.28;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 20.8;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Location and year: Mountaineer, WV - 2005;
Number of turbines: 44;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: ***;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 38.0[E];
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Location and year: Meyersdale, PA - 2005;
Number of turbines: 20;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Birds: *** ;
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Bats: 23.0[E];
Fatalities per turbine, per year: Raptors: ***.
Source: GAO analysis of various scientific studies and reports.
Notes:
*** indicates that the study authors did not calculate a mortality rate
for that category.
Some of the studies that presented a bird/turbine/year mortality rate
also included raptors in that calculation. With the exception of the
studies conducted in the Appalachian region, most of the studies listed
were designed and timed to focus on bird mortality. Bats were found
only incidentally to the study objectives; therefore, rates of bat
mortality reported from those studies may not represent a reliable
measure.
[A] Fatality rate applies to small birds only.
[B] Fatality rate not adjusted for both searcher efficiency and
scavenging rate.
[C] Fatality rate represents number of birds and bats killed per
turbine per 8-month study period.
[D] Fatality rate represents number of bats killed per turbine per 7-
month study period.
[E] Fatality rate represents number of birds and bats killed per
turbine per 6-week study period; however, bat mortality has been shown
to be concentrated in the season during which these study periods took
place.
[End of table]
[End of section]
Appendix III: Comments from the Department of the Interior:
United States Department of the Interior:
OFFICE OF THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY:
POLICY, MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET:
Washington, DC 20240
SEP 2 2005:
Ms. Robin Nazzaro:
Director, Natural Resources and the Environment:
U.S. Government Accountability Office:
441 G Street, N.W.:
Washington, D.C. 20548:
Dear Ms. Nazzaro:
Thank you for providing the Department of the Interior (Department) the
opportunity to review and comment on the draft U.S. Government
Accountability Office (GAO) report entitled, "Wind Power: Impacts on
Wildlife and Government Responsibilities for Regulating Development and
Protecting Wildlife," GAO-05-906, dated July 28, 2005. In general, we
agree with the findings and concur in part with the recommendation in
the report.
A number of the studies used by GAO in the report, investigating direct
mortality impacts on migratory birds and bats, were conducted by
consultants for companies developing the wind energy facilities being
studied. These studies have not been scientifically peer-reviewed, and
the protocols used have varied and are in some cases unknown. We
believe that use of literature that has not been peer-reviewed should
be noted in the report.
We believe that the report accurately describes the Office of Law
Enforcement (OLE) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), approach to
addressing the impact of wind power facilities on protected wildlife.
We would stress, however, that OLE has investigated and continues to
investigate "take" of Federal trust species by wind turbines. Companies
that violate the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) by killing birds face
fines of up to $15,000.00 and/or imprisonment for up to six months.
Higher penalties can be involved if the birds killed are bald or golden
eagles or a species protected under the Endangered Species Act (ESA).
Prosecutions by OLE and the Department Justice (DOJ) focus on companies
that kill birds with disregard for their actions and the law,
especially when conservation measures are available but have not been
implemented. At this time, there have been no prosecutions of any wind
energy development company for violations involving "take" of these
species. The OLE protects migratory birds not only through
investigating violations of the MBTA, but also by fostering
relationships with individuals, companies, and industries that seek to
eliminate impacts on these species. The OLE recognizes that some birds
may be killed even if all reasonable measures to prevent such deaths
are taken; however, it is important that industries continue to work
toward eliminating these losses of migratory birds. While it is not
possible under the MBTA to absolve individuals, companies, or agencies
from liability if they follow recommended conservation practices, the
OLE and DOJ have used enforcement and prosecutorial discretion in the
past toward those who have made good faith efforts to avoid the take of
migratory birds. These efforts are exemplified by the 25 years of work
in collaboration with the electric power industry to identify ways to
prevent bird electrocutions and power line collisions.
The FWS's effort to assist in proper location and design of wind energy
facilities through the voluntary Interim Guidelines to Avoid and
Minimize Wildlife Impacts from Wind Turbines, released for public
review and comment in July 2003, is adequately described in the report.
The FWS stressed that the guidelines were interim in nature pending
public review and comment, were voluntary, flexible, and were not
intended to be used as a set of rigid requirements that should be
applied in every situation. There has been some concern that local and
State regulatory agencies were using the voluntary guidelines as
regulatory requirements in their local permitting processes, creating
unreasonable demands on developers. Several interested parties have
requested that the Interim Guidelines be rescinded for this reason. GAO
informed the FWS during the review that it had investigated these
allegations during the development of the current report, and found no
evidence of any local or State regulatory entity using the Interim
Guidelines as regulation. We recommend that this finding be included in
the report. We believe this would help to dispel the perception that
inappropriate use of the voluntary Interim Guidelines has had a
negative effect on the wind industry.
The State-by-State-review of laws and regulations regarding wind power
development is fairly complete for the States visited by GAO. However,
we believe the report could better synthesize how well the various
local controls provide for consistent treatment and protection of
individual animals and species that are interjurisdictional in their
life cycles and are protected under Federal law. The report would also
benefit from a discussion of the difficulties deriving from
inconsistencies in regulatory requirements and frameworks that now
exist among States. We believe the report should address that the
responsibility for the protection of migratory birds continues to
reside with the Federal Government (DOI), even though State and local
laws and regulations have also been established for the protection of
migratory birds. It should also be clarified that Federal jurisdiction
for migratory birds has not been delegated to the States.
We concur with the recommendation that the FWS should develop
consistent communication to deliver to State and local wind power
regulators alerting them to potential wildlife impacts and to the
resources that are available to assist them in decision-making.
However, it would be inappropriate to include the FWS voluntary Interim
Guidelines in such communication, as the comment period on the interim
guidelines has closed and final guidelines have not yet been developed.
The FWS will be reviewing and considering the public, industry, and
agency comments received on the interim guidelines, and will solicit
additional public input before making a decision on whether or how to
finalize them.
The enclosure provides comments from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
and Bureau of Land Management. We hope these comments will assist you
in preparing the final report.
Sincerely,
Signed by:
P. Lynn Scarlett:
Assistant Secretary Policy, Management and Budget:
Enclosure:
The following are GAO's comments on the Department of the Interior's
letter dated September 2, 2005.
GAO Comments:
The Department of the Interior raised one issue with our recommendation
that we have addressed in the Agency Comment and Our Evaluation section
in the report. We address below the four other points the department
raised in its letter. In addition, the department provided technical
comments that we have incorporated into the report, as appropriate.
1. We agree that it is important to point out that many of these
studies were not scientifically peer-reviewed and have added a footnote
to this effect in the body of the report. However, we disagree that in
some cases protocols used in the studies were unknown. As we explain in
appendix I, we only included studies that were determined to have
reasonably sound methodologies. We did not include any study for which
we were unable to assess the protocols or methodology.
2. We believe the section on law enforcement reflects continued
investigation of "take" of federal trust species by wind turbines and
FWS's and the Department of Justice's enforcement and prosecutorial
discretion, although we have added some clarification on these points.
3. We did not find any instances where state or local agencies that
regulate wind power included in our review had incorporated or adopted
the interim guidelines into their own jurisdictional requirements for
approving wind power facilities. We did, however, find agencies in two
states that had used the guidelines to inform either their development
of regulations or their monitoring of the wildlife impacts at operating
wind power facilities.
4. We did not assess how various local controls provide for protection
of individual animals that are interjurisdictional in their life
cycles. The section of the report that pertains to state wildlife laws
is descriptive in nature and serves to highlight the fact that state
laws sometimes provide additional protections to species, beyond
federal laws, that may be affected by wind power. We added language to
highlight that federal jurisdiction for migratory birds has not been
delegated to the states, and that primary responsibility for the
protection of these birds resides with the federal government
(Interior).
[End of section]
Appendix IV: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments:
GAO Contact:
Robin Nazzaro (202) 512-3841:
Staff Acknowledgments:
In addition to the individual named above, Patricia McClure, Assistant
Director; José Alfredo Gómez; Kimberly Siegal; and William Roach made
key contributions to this report. Important contributions were also
made by Judy Pagano, John Delicath, and Omari Norman.
[End of section]
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[End of section]
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(360530):
FOOTNOTES
[1] Results from nonprobability samples cannot be used to make
inferences about a population because in a nonprobability sample, some
elements of the population being studied have no chance or an unknown
chance of being selected as part of the sample.
[2] 26 U.S.C. § 45. Section 1301 of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, Pub.
L. No. 109-58, extended the tax credit through January 1, 2008.
[3] 26 U.S.C. § 168(e)(3)(B)(vi).
[4] See GAO, Renewable Energy: Wind Power's Contribution to Electric
Power Generation and Impact on Farms and Rural Communities, GAO-04-756
(Washington, D.C.: Sept. 3, 2004) for prior work related to this issue.
[5] The American Wind Energy Association is a national trade
association that represents wind power plant developers, wind turbine
manufacturers, utilities, consultants, insurers, financiers,
researchers, and others involved in the wind industry.
[6] Many of these studies were conducted by consultants for wind power
companies and were not scientifically peer-reviewed. In addition,
protocols used in these studies may vary.
[7] Erickson, Wallace P., Gregory D. Johnson, M. Dale Strickland, David
P. Young Jr., Karyn J. Sernka, and Rhett E. Good. Avian Collisions with
Wind Turbines: A Summary of Existing Studies and Comparisons to Other
Sources of Avian Collision Mortality in the United States. A National
Wind Coordinating Committee Resource Document, August 2001. Because
summaries of studies generally do not present detailed information
about the methodologies of the studies they include, these results
should be considered with caution.
[8] National Wind Coordinating Committee, Wind Turbine Interactions
with Birds and Bats: A Summary of Research Results and Remaining
Questions. Fact sheet: Second Edition. November 2004. Because summaries
of studies generally do not present detailed information about the
methodologies of the studies that they include, these results should be
considered with caution.
[9] See appendix I for the criteria we used for including studies in
our review.
[10] Erickson, Wallace P., Gregory D. Johnson, M. Dale Strickland,
David P. Young Jr., Karyn J. Sernka, and Rhett E. Avian Collisions with
Wind Turbines.
[11] Meteorological towers are used to assess weather conditions,
including wind speed and direction.
[12] California Environmental Quality Act, Cal. Pub. Res. Code § 21100.
[13] Minn. Stat. §§ 116C.691 - 116C.697.
[14] State Environmental Quality Review Act, N.Y. Envtl. Conserv. Law §
8-0109.
[15] Oregon Revised Statutes (ORS) § 469.300 et seq; Oregon
Administrative Rules (OAR) Chapter 345, Divisions 1, 15, 20-23, 26, 27,
and 29.
[16] Developers of these two facilities voluntarily conducted some
preconstruction wildlife studies.
[17] The West Virginia Public Service Commission adopted Rules
Governing Siting Certificates for Exempt Wholesale Generators (WV 150
C.S.R. 30) on May 25, 2005, effective July 25, 2005.
[18] Other federal laws may apply to wind power development on federal
land, such as the Federal Land Policy and Management Act, which
provides BLM with a framework for managing its land.
[19] At the time of this report, a developer had submitted an
application to build what would be the first wind power project on U.S.
Forest Service land.
[20] Postconstruction wildlife studies in these areas of California and
Wyoming found low avian mortality. The California study in Tehachapi
Pass was not included in appendix II because estimating fatality rates
was not a primary goal of that study.
[21] FWS shares responsibility for enforcing the Endangered Species Act
with the National Marine Fisheries Service, which is responsible for
protecting ocean-dwelling species and anadromous species, such as
salmon.
[22] FWS identifies violations of federal wildlife laws in several
ways, including by receiving citizen complaints and self-reporting by
industry or individuals.
[23] Of all the species that have been killed, only two endangered
species kills have been documented--a peregrine falcon in 1996 and a
brown pelican in 2002.
[24] Center for Biological Diversity v. FPL Group, No. RG04183113
(Calif. Super. Ct., Alameda County, filed Nov. 1, 2004).
[25] Many of these studies have not been scientifically peer-reviewed,
and the protocols in each study may vary.
[26] We referenced one of these studies in two places in this report.
In each of these places, a source and associated caveat are presented
in a footnote.
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441 G Street NW, Room LM
Washington, D.C. 20548:
To order by Phone:
Voice: (202) 512-6000:
TDD: (202) 512-2537:
Fax: (202) 512-6061:
To Report Fraud, Waste, and Abuse in Federal Programs:
Contact:
Web site: www.gao.gov/fraudnet/fraudnet.htm
E-mail: fraudnet@gao.gov
Automated answering system: (800) 424-5454 or (202) 512-7470:
Public Affairs:
Jeff Nelligan, managing director,
NelliganJ@gao.gov
(202) 512-4800
U.S. Government Accountability Office,
441 G Street NW, Room 7149
Washington, D.C. 20548:
