Tax Preparers
Oregon's Regulatory Regime May Lead to Improved Federal Tax Return Accuracy and Provides a Possible Model for National Regulation
Gao ID: GAO-08-781 August 15, 2008
Millions of taxpayers use paid tax return preparers and many of these paid preparers are not subject to any qualification requirements. Paid preparers in California and Oregon are exceptions in that these states have set paid preparer qualification standards. Additionally, two bills before Congress would require national paid preparer regulations. To help Congress better understand the potential costs and revenue effects of regulating paid preparers, GAO was asked to study (1) how IRS, California, Oregon, and other states regulate paid preparers, (2) how the accuracy of federal tax returns from California and Oregon compare to other returns, and (3) state-level costs and benefits of the California and Oregon programs and insights they provide for a possible national program. GAO analyzed IRS research data on tax return accuracy; interviewed IRS officials, state administrators, and preparer community representatives; and reviewed relevant documents.
No federal registration, education, or testing requirements apply to all paid preparers before they can prepare tax returns. California and Oregon have requirements that preparers must meet before preparing returns in those states. California paid preparers who are not attorneys, certified public accountants, enrolled agents (or employed by one of these types of tax practitioners) must complete an education requirement, obtain a bond, pay a fee, and register. In following years, they must complete continuing education requirements, and renew their registration. Oregon has similar, but more stringent requirements. Oregon has a two-tiered licensing system, with an education requirement and examination for Licensed Tax Preparers and work experience and a second examination for Licensed Tax Consultants. Oregon exempts certified public accountants and their employees, as well as attorneys, from these requirements. Oregon requires enrolled agents to take a shorter version of the consultant examination. Fifty-four percent of Oregon applicants passed the state's basic examination. Recently, Maryland enacted legislation to regulate paid preparers and at least three other states have similar pending legislation. According to GAO's analysis of the Internal Revenue Service's (IRS) tax year 2001 National Research Program data, Oregon returns were more likely to be accurate while California returns were less likely to be accurate compared to the rest of the country after controlling for other factors likely to affect accuracy. In dollar terms, the average Oregon return required approximately $250 less of a change in tax liability than the average return in the rest of the country. For Oregon's 1.56 million individual tax filers, this equates to over $390 million more in federal income taxes paid in Oregon than would have been paid if the returns were as accurate as similar returns in the rest of the country. These results are consistent with, but do not prove, that Oregon's regulations lead to some increased tax return accuracy. GAO's analysis could not account for all factors that might affect the accuracy of these tax returns. Because some states without preparer regulation also had tax returns that, on average, were more accurate than the national average, some portion of the increased accuracy of Oregon returns likely is due to other factors. The California and Oregon programs' costs varied with differences in the programs' scope. Both programs' administrative costs are funded primarily from program fees. California's costs were about $29 per preparer and Oregon's about $123. GAO estimates that the total annual cost of the ongoing Oregon program, including state costs and the cost to preparers for their time and expense in acquiring required education, likely is about $6 million. Officials in both states believe program benefits like reducing the number of incompetent preparers outweigh costs, although neither state had data on benefits. IRS officials said that a national program's costs likely would depend on the program's objectives and features.
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GAO-08-781, Tax Preparers: Oregon's Regulatory Regime May Lead to Improved Federal Tax Return Accuracy and Provides a Possible Model for National Regulation
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Improved Federal Tax Return Accuracy and Provides a Possible Model for
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Report to the Committee on Finance, U.S. Senate:
United States Government Accountability Office:
GAO:
August 2008:
Tax Preparers:
Oregon's Regulatory Regime May Lead to Improved Federal Tax Return
Accuracy and Provides a Possible Model for National Regulation:
GAO-08-781:
GAO Highlights:
Highlights of GAO-08-781, a report to the Committee on Finance, U.S.
Senate.
Why GAO Did This Study:
Millions of taxpayers use paid tax return preparers and many of these
paid preparers are not subject to any qualification requirements. Paid
preparers in California and Oregon are exceptions in that these states
have set paid preparer qualification standards. Additionally, two bills
before Congress would require national paid preparer regulations.
To help Congress better understand the potential costs and revenue
effects of regulating paid preparers, GAO was asked to study (1) how
IRS, California, Oregon, and other states regulate paid preparers, (2)
how the accuracy of federal tax returns from California and Oregon
compare to other returns, and (3) state-level costs and benefits of the
California and Oregon programs and insights they provide for a possible
national program. GAO analyzed IRS research data on tax return
accuracy; interviewed IRS officials, state administrators, and preparer
community representatives; and reviewed relevant documents.
What GAO Found:
No federal registration, education, or testing requirements apply to
all paid preparers before they can prepare tax returns. California and
Oregon have requirements that preparers must meet before preparing
returns in those states. California paid preparers who are not
attorneys, certified public accountants, enrolled agents (or employed
by one of these types of tax practitioners) must complete an education
requirement, obtain a bond, pay a fee, and register. In following
years, they must complete continuing education requirements, and renew
their registration. Oregon has similar, but more stringent
requirements. Oregon has a two-tiered licensing system, with an
education requirement and examination for Licensed Tax Preparers and
work experience and a second examination for Licensed Tax Consultants.
Oregon exempts certified public accountants and their employees, as
well as attorneys, from these requirements. Oregon requires enrolled
agents to take a shorter version of the consultant examination. Fifty-
four percent of Oregon applicants passed the state‘s basic examination.
Recently, Maryland enacted legislation to regulate paid preparers and
at least three other states have similar pending legislation.
According to GAO‘s analysis of the Internal Revenue Service‘s (IRS) tax
year 2001 National Research Program data, Oregon returns were more
likely to be accurate while California returns were less likely to be
accurate compared to the rest of the country after controlling for
other factors likely to affect accuracy. In dollar terms, the average
Oregon return required approximately $250 less of a change in tax
liability than the average return in the rest of the country. For
Oregon‘s 1.56 million individual tax filers, this equates to over $390
million more in federal income taxes paid in Oregon than would have
been paid if the returns were as accurate as similar returns in the
rest of the country. These results are consistent with, but do not
prove, that Oregon‘s regulations lead to some increased tax return
accuracy. GAO‘s analysis could not account for all factors that might
affect the accuracy of these tax returns. Because some states without
preparer regulation also had tax returns that, on average, were more
accurate than the national average, some portion of the increased
accuracy of Oregon returns likely is due to other factors.
The California and Oregon programs‘ costs varied with differences in
the programs‘ scope. Both programs‘ administrative costs are funded
primarily from program fees. California‘s costs were about $29 per
preparer and Oregon‘s about $123. GAO estimates that the total annual
cost of the ongoing Oregon program, including state costs and the cost
to preparers for their time and expense in acquiring required
education, likely is about $6 million. Officials in both states believe
program benefits like reducing the number of incompetent preparers
outweigh costs, although neither state had data on benefits. IRS
officials said that a national program‘s costs likely would depend on
the program‘s objectives and features.
What GAO Recommends:
If Congress judges that the Oregon paid preparer regulations account
for even a modest portion of the higher accuracy of Oregon federal tax
returns at a reasonable cost, it should consider adopting a similar
regime nationwide. If Congress enacts paid preparer legislation, it
should also require IRS to evaluate its effectiveness. IRS provided
technical comments on a draft of this report which were incorporated.
To view the full product, including the scope and methodology, click on
[hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-08-781]. For more
information, contact Michael Brostek at (202) 512-9110 or
brostekm@gao.gov.
[End of section]
Contents:
Letter:
Results in Brief:
Background:
IRS, California, and Oregon Differ Significantly in How Each Regulates
Paid Tax Preparers:
Oregon's Regulatory Regime May Lead to More Accurate Federal Tax
Returns:
Costs and Benefits of the California and Oregon Programs Provide Some
Guidance for a National Program:
Conclusions:
Matter for Congressional Consideration:
Agency Comments:
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology:
Appendix II: Comments from the Internal Revenue Service:
Appendix III: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments:
Tables:
Table 1: Overview of the California and Oregon Paid Tax Preparer
Programs:
Table 2: Comparison of State-Level Paid Preparer Requirements and
Pending Legislation:
Table 3: Percentages, Odds, and Odds Ratios for Return Accuracy, before
and after Controlling for Other Factors:
Abbreviations:
CPA: Certified Public Accountant:
CRTP: CTEC Registered Tax Preparer:
CTEC: California Tax Education Council:
EIC: Earned Income Credit:
FTB: Franchise Tax Board:
IRS: Internal Revenue Service:
LTC: Licensed Tax Consultant:
LTP: Licensed Tax Preparer:
NRP: National Research Program:
OBTP: Oregon Board of Tax Practitioners:
OPR: Office of Professional Responsibility:
[End of section]
United States Government Accountability Office:
Washington, DC 20548:
August 15, 2008:
The Honorable Max Baucus:
Chairman:
The Honorable Charles Grassley:
Ranking Member:
Committee on Finance:
United States Senate:
Nearly 78 million of the 127 million individual income tax returns
filed during the 2006 filing season were prepared by paid tax return
preparers.[Footnote 1] Paid preparers are such an important part of the
federal tax administration system that the Internal Revenue Service
(IRS) sometimes refers to them as "partners." However, we testified in
2006 on the serious errors that paid preparers can make--errors that
cause taxpayers to underpay their taxes, exposing themselves to IRS
enforcement action, or that lead taxpayers to not take advantage of
available credits or deductions and, as a result, they end up paying
too much.[Footnote 2] Tax return preparers may be self employed or may
work in a variety of business settings, including large companies,
franchises, and small businesses. Most paid preparers are not subject
to any education, testing, or registration requirements. Two states,
California and Oregon, are exceptions in that for many years they have
had their own requirements that apply to paid preparers working in
their states.
To help Congress better understand the potential costs and revenue
effects of establishing regulation at a federal level for all paid
preparers, you asked us to answer the following questions: (1) How do
IRS, California, Oregon, and other states regulate paid preparers? (2)
Using available IRS data, how does the accuracy of federal tax returns
in California and Oregon compare to that of returns in the rest of the
country, after accounting for other factors that might influence
accuracy? (3) What are the state-level costs and benefits of the paid
preparer programs in California and Oregon and what insights do they
provide for possible benefits if Congress were to enact national paid
preparer registration or licensing requirements?
To answer these questions, we reviewed relevant documents from
California, Oregon, and IRS, including budget and legislative material.
We interviewed California and Oregon state program administrators and
paid preparer industry representatives in those states and nationwide.
We also searched legal databases for examples of newly enacted paid
preparer laws in other states and pending legislation. We also
interviewed IRS officials to discuss the implications of using the
California or Oregon regulatory regimes as possible models for federal-
level paid preparer legislation. To compare tax return accuracy, we
analyzed data from the National Research Program (NRP), an IRS study of
reporting compliance for a random sample of individual tax returns
filed for tax year 2001.[Footnote 3] In most cases, the returns were
audited to determine whether income, expenses, and other items were
reported accurately by the taxpayers. We determined that the data used
to characterize tax return accuracy differences between California,
Oregon, and the rest of the country and to describe the costs of the
two state programs were sufficiently reliable for the purposes of this
report; we determined this after assessing the reliability of NRP data,
reviewing California and Oregon financial reports, and interviewing
state program administrators. We conducted this performance audit from
September 2007 through July 2008 in accordance with generally accepted
government auditing standards. Those standards require that we plan and
perform the audit to obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide
a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit
objectives. We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable
basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives.
For a more detailed discussion of our scope and methodology, see
appendix I.
Results in Brief:
Oregon has more requirements for paid tax return preparers than
California, and both states have more paid tax return preparer
requirements than the federal government. Only a few federal laws apply
to all paid preparers and these laws concern tax preparer conduct
rather than qualification requirements. Only a small portion of paid
preparers--enrolled agents[Footnote 4]--have any federal registration,
testing, or fee requirements. California paid preparers who are not
attorneys, certified public accountants (CPA), enrolled agents (or
employed by one of these types of tax practitioners) must complete 60
hours of qualifying education, obtain a surety bond, register with the
California Tax Education Council (CTEC), and pay a fee to become a CTEC
Registered Tax Preparer (CRTP), and they must complete 20 hours of
continuing education and reregister in each subsequent year. Paid
preparers who fail to register can be fined up to $5,000. Oregon has a
two-tiered licensing program. Oregon requires prospective paid
preparers to complete 80 hours of qualifying education, pass a state-
administered examination, register, and pay a fee to be initially
certified as a Licensed Tax Preparer (LTP), and they must complete 30
hours of continuing education and pay a fee to reregister in each
subsequent year. Oregon also requires that all LTPs work under the
supervision of a Licensed Tax Consultant (LTC), CPA, or attorney. To
become an LTC, a preparer must meet specific work experience
requirements and pass a second, more advanced examination. Oregon can
impose fines of up to $5,000 per return for unlicensed tax return
preparation and for certain conduct on the part of LTPs and LTCs. The
Oregon tests are notable in that they have low passing rates--54
percent for the LTP examination and 30 percent for the LTC examination.
In May 2008, Maryland enacted legislation to regulate paid preparers
and at least three other states have pending legislation to regulate
paid preparers.
When controlling for other factors likely to affect tax return
accuracy, our analysis of IRS data showed that tax year 2001 federal
tax returns filed in Oregon were more likely to be accurate than
returns in the rest of the country, which is consistent with but not
sufficient to prove that Oregon's regulatory regime leads to some
increased tax return accuracy. On average, returns filed in California
were less likely to be accurate than returns filed in the rest of the
country.[Footnote 5] This indicates that California's paid preparer
regulatory regime may not improve the likelihood that returns are
accurate, relative to the rest of the country. Including both self-
prepared and paid prepared returns, Oregon's 2001 federal returns were
on average about $250 dollars more accurate than returns in the rest of
the country. With about 1.56 million individual tax filers in Oregon in
2001, this translates into over $390 million more in income taxes paid
in Oregon than would have been paid if Oregon returns were prepared at
the level of accuracy seen on similar returns in the rest of the
country. While some portion of this difference might be due to preparer
regulations, we cannot rule out that other factors may influence
accuracy, such as whether Oregon paid preparers were more likely to be
attorneys or accountants than were paid preparers elsewhere in the
country. Also, we cannot compare the before and after effects of either
state's regulatory regime. Furthermore, some states without paid
preparer regulation also had tax returns that, on average, were more
accurate than the national average. Consequently, we cannot rule out
the possibility that Oregon or California returns were no more or less
likely to be accurate than they would have been without regulation of
paid preparers.
The costs and benefits of the California and Oregon programs vary in
terms of scope and point to factors that would have implications for
any proposed national paid preparer regulatory program. In both
programs, direct administration costs are funded principally through
fees with no direct cost to the states. California's program is focused
on ensuring that paid preparers have received required education and
its cost is relatively low, with direct costs of about $29 per CRTP per
year, according to our analysis of the CTEC budget. Oregon's per paid
preparer costs are higher than California's--about $123 per LTC and per
LTP, according to our analysis of the Oregon Board of Tax Practitioners
(OBTP) budget. Oregon's higher cost per preparer is partly because the
Oregon program includes testing and also because Oregon's costs are
spread among far fewer paid preparers than California's. Nevertheless,
we conservatively estimate that the total cost of the Oregon program--
including both fees paid to the state and the time and expense that
preparers incur to comply with Oregon's education requirements--was
about $6 million in 2007. If only a small portion of the increased
revenue that we found in Oregon is attributable to the Oregon
regulatory regime, the regime would compare favorably to IRS's overall
efforts to increase reporting accuracy. Program administrators and
preparer community representatives we spoke to in both states said they
believe that the programs are beneficial because they reduce the number
of incompetent paid preparers, professionalize the industry, and have
benefits that outweigh the costs, although neither state has conducted
research into this latter question. Costs and benefits of paid preparer
regulation at the federal level would similarly be driven by program
features--the more a program would be expected to accomplish, the more
it would likely cost to design, implement, and administer.
If Congress judges that the Oregon paid preparer regulatory regime is
likely to account for at least a modest portion of the higher accuracy
of Oregon federal tax returns and could be implemented nationwide at a
favorable cost compared to the potential benefits of improved accuracy,
it should consider adopting a similar regime nationwide. In light of
the uncertainty about the extent to which Oregon's regime improves tax
return accuracy, if Congress enacts national paid preparer legislation,
it should also require IRS to evaluate its effectiveness.
We provided the Commissioner of Internal Revenue with a draft of this
report for review and comment and IRS provided technical comments which
we incorporated. The Commissioner's letter is reprinted in appendix II.
Background:
A paid tax return preparer is anyone who is paid to prepare, assist in
preparing, or review a taxpayer's tax return.[Footnote 6] In this
report, we refer to two categories of paid preparers--tax practitioners
and unenrolled preparers. CPAs, attorneys, and enrolled agents are tax
practitioners. Tax practitioners can practice before IRS; practicing
before IRS includes the right to represent a taxpayer before the IRS,
to prepare and file documents with IRS for the taxpayer, and to
correspond and communicate with IRS. Individuals can become enrolled
agents by passing a 3-part examination; IRS waives the examination
requirement for people with specific prior work experience at IRS.
Department of the Treasury Circular 230, Regulations Governing the
Practice of Attorneys, Certified Public Accountants, Enrolled Agents,
Enrolled Actuaries, and Appraisers before the Internal Revenue Service,
applies to tax practitioners and governs their duties, restrictions,
sanctions, and disciplinary proceedings. IRS's Office of Professional
Responsibility (OPR) has responsibility for administering and enforcing
Treasury Circular 230. We use the term unenrolled preparer to describe
the remainder of the paid preparer population. In most states, anyone
can be an unenrolled preparer regardless of education, experience, or
other standards.[Footnote 7]
Paid preparers are a critical part of the nation's tax administration
system because of the wide variety of services they offer and their
unique relationship with taxpayers. Paid preparers may combine several
taxpayer services, including help understanding tax obligations,
answering tax law questions, and providing tax forms and publications,
return preparation, and electronic filing. IRS regards tax
professionals as a critical link between taxpayers and the government.
For example, IRS has a section of its Web site dedicated to providing
information directly to tax professionals. IRS also sponsors the
Nationwide Tax Forums, annual conferences in several cities every year
to provide tax education to paid preparers. The Web site of the
National Association of Tax Professionals also points out the shared
responsibility of paid preparers to represent their clients while
respecting the law, listing among its professional standards one that
says "Should the client insist upon [an] item being stated on the
return incorrectly, the member should withdraw and refuse to prepare
the return."
The number of active paid preparers is unknown. In 1999, IRS estimated
there were up to 1.2 million paid preparers, but IRS officials
acknowledge that the actual number could be significantly higher or
lower. The total number of active paid preparers is unknown because
only a small portion of all paid preparers--enrolled agents--are
licensed directly by IRS to practice before the IRS. As of June 2008,
about 43,000 tax preparers were actively enrolled to practice before
the IRS.[Footnote 8] IRS officials said that the number of new enrolled
agent applications and the number of people taking the examination have
declined in recent years. They noted that these declines followed
increases in enrolled agent application and examination fees.[Footnote
9] Similarly, the number of attorneys and accountants who make tax
return preparation a part of their practice is unknown.
Millions of tax returns prepared by paid preparers have serious
compliance problems, which often leave taxpayers owing or overpaying by
hundreds or thousands of dollars. As we have previously reported,
[Footnote 10] IRS's tax year 2001 NRP data indicate that tax returns
prepared by paid preparers had a higher error rate--56 percent-
-than returns prepared by taxpayers--47 percent.[Footnote 11] In 2002,
we estimated that on as many as 2.2 million tax returns, taxpayers
claimed the standard deduction when their potential itemized deductions
were greater, and that about half of these taxpayers had returns
prepared by another person.[Footnote 12] In 2005, we reported that many
tax returns included claims for one of three available postsecondary
education tax preferences that resulted in higher overall tax liability
than if one of the other preferences had been taken, and that over half
of these returns were prepared by paid preparers.[Footnote 13] However,
the fact that errors were made on a return done by a paid preparer does
not necessarily mean the errors were the preparer's fault; the taxpayer
may be to blame. The preparer must depend on the information provided
by the taxpayer.
On the other hand, some mistakes are clearly the fault of the preparer.
In 2006 we reported on the results of an investigation where we
identified mistakes in 19 out of 19 visits to paid preparers working in
preparer chain offices. Some of the mistakes were significant, either
exposing the taxpayers to serious IRS enforcement action or costing
taxpayers over $1,500 in overpaid taxes.[Footnote 14] In 2007, the
Department of Justice took action against corporations operating
franchises of a major tax preparation chain. The government complaints
alleged that the franchisee corporations created and fostered a
business environment "in which fraudulent tax return preparation is
encouraged and flourishes."[Footnote 15] The corporations that owned
the franchises agreed to sell the franchises to new owners and to be
permanently barred from preparing federal income tax returns.[Footnote
16]
When mistakes or deliberate noncompliance by paid preparers result in
taxpayers underreporting their tax liabilities, it adds to the tax gap.
The net tax gap is an estimate of the difference between the taxes
owed--including individual income, corporate income, employment,
estate, and excise taxes--and what was eventually paid for a specific
year. IRS most recently estimated the net tax gap to be $290 billion in
2001.
In March 2008, we recommended that IRS develop a plan to require a
single identification number for paid preparers, including assessing
the feasibility of options, their benefits and costs, as well as their
usefulness for enforcement and research, on paid preparer behavior.
[Footnote 17] Also, as of July 2008 there were similar bills pending
before Congress calling for national paid preparer regulation. Senate
Bill 1219 and House of Representatives Bill 5716 would require members
of the current community of unenrolled paid preparers to pass an
initial qualifying examination and meet continuing annual education
requirements. Support for legislation such as this can be found in the
National Taxpayer Advocate's 2002 and 2003 Annual Reports to Congress,
which recommended Congress create a designation called a "Federal Tax
Return Preparer," defined as someone other than an attorney, CPA, or
enrolled agent, who prepares more than five federal tax returns in a
calendar year and satisfies registration, examination, and
certification requirements.[Footnote 18]
IRS, California, and Oregon Differ Significantly in How Each Regulates
Paid Tax Preparers:
Only a few Internal Revenue Code provisions apply to all paid preparers
and only a small portion of paid preparers--enrolled agents--have any
federal registration, testing, or fee requirements. All paid preparers
are subject to a few Code provisions and may be penalized if they fail
to follow them. For example, the Internal Revenue Code imposes monetary
penalties on paid preparers who (1) understate a taxpayer's liability
due to a position that fails to meet the applicable legal standard, (2)
fail to provide a copy of the return to the taxpayer, or (3) fail to
identify themselves on the returns they prepare. Additionally, for
returns that include the Earned Income Credit (EIC), paid preparers
must ask specific questions to determine a taxpayer's eligibility for
the credit. Also, all paid preparers who choose to file electronically
are subject to IRS Electronic Return Originator rules.
Both California and Oregon began to regulate paid preparers in the
1970s. California's program was first administered by the state's
Department of Consumer Affairs, and legislation transferred oversight
responsibility to CTEC in 1997. Oregon's program was established by the
1973 Oregon Legislative Assembly after representatives of the state's
paid preparer community recommended that the legislature regulate the
profession. According to a preparer involved at the time, the Oregon
Legislative Assembly was responding to a report that there were many
dishonest or incompetent paid preparers working in the state.
The main features of California's paid preparer program are qualifying
and continuing education and registration. To become a CRTP,
individuals initially register with CTEC by completing a 60-hour
qualifying education course, purchasing a $5,000 surety bond,
completing an application, and paying a $25 registration fee. CTEC may
waive some of the qualifying education requirements for individuals
with 2 recent years experience in the preparation of personal income
tax returns.[Footnote 19] In each subsequent year, CRTPs must complete
20 hours of continuing education, ensure their bond remains in full
force, submit a renewal application, and pay a $25 renewal fee. As of
June 6, 2008, 41,755 paid preparers were registered with CTEC. CPAs,
attorneys, enrolled agents, and employees of any of these types of tax
practitioners are exempt and not required to register.[Footnote 20]
California does not require prospective CRTPs to pass a criminal
background check or to report past criminal convictions or current
legal issues. This means that prior questionable or illegal conduct is
not known to program administrators. Moreover, CTEC does not have the
authority to deny a preparer's registration application based on known
illegal conduct, nor does the California Code include provisions for
refusing to renew a CRTP's registration as long as the CRTP meets the
continuing education requirement and pays the annual registration fee.
The 60-hour qualifying education requirement is intended to ensure paid
preparers have a basic knowledge of federal and California tax laws.
According to the CTEC policy manual, the intent of the annual
continuing education requirement is to enhance the paid preparer's
skill in tax matters above the basic knowledge they have already
acquired. CTEC approves an education provider's curriculum based on an
independent review of one of the prospective provider's courses at
least once every 3 years.
People who are not one of the types of exempt tax practitioners who
prepare tax returns in California without becoming CRTPs can be fined.
Under a Memorandum of Understanding between CTEC and the California
Franchise Tax Board (FTB),[Footnote 21] the FTB is reimbursed by CTEC
for providing staff to identify unregistered tax preparers. In 2007,
FTB provided one full-time and one part-time employee and CTEC
reimbursed FTB $270,000. Persons suspected of illegally preparing tax
returns are first issued penalty letters and encouraged to become
registered. If they do not register within 90 days, the FTB can levy
fines of up to $5,000. An FTB official said that between July 1, 2005,
and June 30, 2006, FTB identified 77 individuals as unregistered.
[Footnote 22] Many of these persons were identified by the 2 FTB staff
members who visited the Los Angeles and San Francisco Bay areas--where
there are large numbers of paid preparer offices--met with paid
preparers, and asked to see evidence of registration. Noncompliant paid
preparers have also been identified through complaints sent to CTEC and
passed along to FTB.
Oregon requires paid preparers who are not already licensed by the
state as CPAs or attorneys, or working for a CPA, to obtain a state
license to prepare tax returns.[Footnote 23] Enrolled agents--
practitioners licensed by Treasury--must also obtain an Oregon license,
but they are subject to fewer qualifying requirements than other
individuals who are seeking an LTC license. The state board that
administers the program--the Oregon Board of Tax Practitioners--issues
two levels of paid preparer licenses: the Licensed Tax Preparer (LTP)
license and the Licensed Tax Consultant (LTC) license.[Footnote 24] To
become an LTP, a person must have a high school diploma or the
equivalent, complete 80 hours of approved qualifying education, pass a
state-administered examination with a score of 75 percent or better,
and pay an $80 registration fee. To continue as an LTP in following
years, individuals must annually renew their license by completing 30
hours of approved continuing education and paying an $80 renewal fee.
An LTP in Oregon may only prepare tax returns for Oregon residents
under the supervision of an LTC, CPA, or attorney.[Footnote 25] A
person can become an LTC after working as a tax preparer for a minimum
of 780 hours during 2 of the prior 5 years, completing a minimum of 15
hours of continuing education within 1 year of submitting an
application, and passing a more advanced examination with a score of 75
percent or better.[Footnote 26]
LTPs and LTCs must disclose on their initial license and license
renewal applications if they have been convicted of a crime or are
under indictment for criminal offenses involving dishonesty, fraud, or
deception. According to the Oregon statute, OBTP can consider the
circumstances in particular cases and still approve an application when
the applicant has disclosed a legal issue.
Many applicants do not pass the LTP or LTC examinations. For instance,
from March 1, 2006, to February 28, 2007, 54 percent of test takers
passed the LTP examination and 30 percent passed the LTC examination.
[Footnote 27] The OBTP updates both examinations yearly. The
examinations cover specific Oregon and federal personal income tax laws
as well as tax theory and practice. The LTC examination also includes
questions on corporation and partnership income as they relate to
personal income tax returns. The examination questions pertain to
approximately 75 percent federal and 25 percent state law. IRS enrolled
agents in Oregon who wish to become LTCs must pass a shorter version of
the LTC examination that is limited to Oregon state laws. The intent of
Oregon's education and examination requirement is to ensure paid
preparers comprehend the state and federal tax codes. OBTP reports that
in March 2008, 3,993 paid preparers held one of these two licenses--
1,916 LTPs and 2,077 LTCs.
The Oregon statute includes fines for preparing tax returns without a
license. Each return prepared can generate a separate fine, so the
total penalty for working as an unlicensed preparer can be very large.
OBTP also has the authority to assess civil penalties of up to $5,000,
or suspend or revoke the license of LTCs and LTPs who engage in
fraudulent or illegal conduct, or who violate other provisions of the
Oregon statutes or OBTP rules. Additionally, the board may order
restitution to consumers harmed by tax preparation fraud. From March
2001 to November 2007, OBTP took disciplinary action 48 times, with
fines totaling about $2 million. The largest fine for one individual
was in April 2002 for $805,700. Only a fraction of fines are eventually
collected however--while about $867,000 in fines were levied from July
2005 through June 2007, about $69,000 in fines and $6,000 in interest
was collected during the same period. Persons penalized by the OBTP can
appeal these decisions and OBTP has an arrangement with the Oregon
Office of Administrative Hearings to provide an administrative law
judge to hear these cases. Individuals can also appeal their cases to
the Oregon Court of Appeals.
Both California and Oregon use their registered or licensed paid
preparer lists to contact preparers to remind them about requirements
and to inform them about changes to the tax code or other matters they
should know about. However, neither state uses their preparer
information to track paid preparer accuracy or for enforcement
purposes. California does not require CRTPs to include their CTEC
registration number on either the state or federal tax returns that
they prepare. Oregon requires LTCs and LTPs to include their license
number on both types of returns, but officials told us that this
requirement is not consistently followed as some licensees incorrectly
put down their Preparer Tax Identification Number, Social Security
Number, or an employer's Employer Identification Number. Consequently,
neither state has a reliable means to track or analyze returns prepared
by registered or licensed paid preparers in their states. Table 1
illustrates some of the highlights of the California and Oregon
regulatory programs.
Table 1: Overview of the California and Oregon Paid Tax Preparer
Programs:
Requirement: Experience;
California: May consider work experience in lieu of education;
Oregon: Licensed Tax Preparer (LTP): None;
Oregon: Licensed Tax Consultant (LTC): Prior experience as an LTP or
submit petition form of all past tax preparation experience.
Requirement: Education;
California: Complete a 60-hour qualifying education course;
Oregon: Licensed Tax Preparer (LTP): (1) Hold a high school diploma or
pass equivalency exam; (2) Complete 80 hours of qualifying education;
Oregon: Licensed Tax Consultant (LTC): Oregon: If currently an LTP,
complete at least 15 hours of continuing education. Otherwise, complete
80 hours of education on income tax law.
Requirement: Examination;
California: None;
Oregon: Licensed Tax Preparer (LTP): Pass exam with a score of at least
75 percent;
Oregon: Licensed Tax Consultant (LTC): Pass exam with a score of at
least 75 percent; Enrolled agents take only the sections of the LTC
examination focused on Oregon laws.
Requirement: Exempted individuals;
California: CPAs, attorneys, enrolled agents, and anyone employed by
them. Trust company and financial institution employees functioning
within the scope of their employment;
Oregon: CPAs, public accountants, and their employees; attorneys;
employees of businesses who prepare only their businesses' tax returns;
fiduciaries and their employees while acting on behalf of estates; and
employees of governmental agencies while performing official duties.
Requirement: Is criminal background relevant to registration or
licensing?
California: No;
Oregon: Yes. OBTP makes case-by-case decisions.
Requirement: Other;
California: Purchase a $5,000 surety bond;
Oregon: Must be 18 years old.
Requirement: Fees;
California: $25 (initial registration and annual renewal);
Oregon: Licensed Tax Preparer (LTP): $80 (Initial issuance or renewal);
Oregon: Licensed Tax Consultant (LTC): $95 (initial issuance and
renewal), $65 (if currently an LTP).
Requirement: Renewal;
California: Annual. Complete 20 hours of continuing education and
ensure bond remains in force;
Oregon: Annual. Complete 30 hours of continuing education.
Requirement: Penalties for failing to register;
California: Unregistered individuals may be fined $2,500, but fine may
be waived if they register within 90 days. If they fail to comply, the
fine may be increased to $5,000;
Oregon: Civil penalties range from $50 to $5,000 per violation.
Sources: California and Oregon paid preparer regulatory programs.
[End of table]
In May 2008, Maryland also enacted paid preparer legislation that will
require tax preparers to pass an examination, pay a registration fee,
and subsequently comply with continuing education requirements. Also,
New York, Oklahoma, and Arkansas all have legislation pending that
would create tax preparer programs. All three pending bills create an
oversight regime, which would include tax preparer registration and
education requirements, both initial and continuing.[Footnote 28]
The Oklahoma and Arkansas bills require that preparers pass an
examination to register. Arkansas's pending legislation closely models
the Oregon regime, with requirements for both preparers and
consultants. New York's pending legislation is similar to California's
paid preparer program, requiring preparers to maintain surety bonds but
having no provision for preparer testing. The enacted Maryland program
and the pending legislation in New York and Oklahoma exempt CPAs,
attorneys and their employees, and enrolled agents from the
requirements. The Arkansas bill would exempt CPAs and attorneys and
their employees, and would require enrolled agents to pass a test only
on Arkansas tax law issues.[Footnote 29] Table 2 provides an overview
comparison of the California and Oregon requirements with the Maryland
requirements and the pending legislation in the other states.
Table 2: Comparison of State-Level Paid Preparer Requirements and
Pending Legislation:
Registration:
California: Yes;
Oregon: Yes;
Maryland: Yes;
Arkansas (pending legislation): Yes;
New York (pending legislation): Yes;
Yes; Oklahoma (pending legislation): Yes.
Qualifying education:
California: Yes;
Oregon: Yes;
Maryland: No;
Arkansas (pending legislation): Yes;
New York (pending legislation): Yes;
Oklahoma (pending legislation): Yes.
Testing:
California: No;
Oregon: Yes;
Maryland: Yes;
Arkansas (pending legislation): Yes;
New York (pending legislation): No;
Oklahoma (pending legislation): Yes.
Continuing education:
California: Yes;
Oregon: Yes;
Maryland: Yes;
Arkansas (pending legislation): Yes;
New York (pending legislation): Yes;
Oklahoma (pending legislation): Yes.
Sources: GAO review of state laws and pending legislation.
[End of table]
IRS officials noted that continued growth in the number of different
paid preparer registration or licensing regimes in different states
could become a problem if the requirements differ from state to state.
The officials described this as primarily a problem for the tax
preparation industry in that a variety of regulatory regimes across
many different states could make it complicated, for example, for paid
preparers to move their practice from one state to another or for a tax
preparation chain to move employees or expand their operations.
Oregon's Regulatory Regime May Lead to More Accurate Federal Tax
Returns:
When controlling for other factors likely to affect tax return
accuracy, our analysis of IRS data showed that tax year 2001 federal
tax returns filed in Oregon were more likely to be accurate than
returns in the rest of the country, which is consistent with but not
sufficient to prove that Oregon's regulatory regime improves tax return
accuracy. Relative to the rest of the country, Oregon paid preparer
returns had a greater likelihood of being accurate and California paid
preparer returns were less likely to be accurate. Specifically, we
found that the odds that a return filed by an Oregon paid preparer was
accurate were about 72 percent higher than the odds for a comparable
return filed by a paid preparer in the rest of the country. Conversely,
the odds that a paid preparer return in California was accurate were
about 22 percent lower than for paid preparer returns in the rest of
the country.[Footnote 30] This indicates that California's paid
preparer regulatory regime may not improve the likelihood that returns
are accurate, relative to the rest of the country. Our analysis
controlled for factors such as the complexity of tax returns in
comparing California and Oregon to the rest of the country. However,
our analysis cannot rule out the possibility that factors for which we
could not control affected the accuracy of tax returns in either state.
To determine the relative likelihood that Oregon and California returns
were accurate, we used multivariate logistic regression to compare the
odds of return accuracy in these states compared to odds in the rest of
the country, controlling for other characteristics that might influence
return accuracy.[Footnote 31] To make these accuracy comparisons, we
used data from IRS's NRP, which assessed the accuracy of individual tax
returns from tax year 2001. We defined a return as accurate if it
required less than $100 absolute value in changes.[Footnote 32]
As an illustration of the differences among paid preparer returns in
California and Oregon, we computed the probability of accuracy for a
medium complexity, form 1040, U.S. Individual Income Tax Return, for a
taxpayer with income over $100,000. While a return with these
characteristics prepared by a paid preparer in Oregon would have a 74
percent probability of being accurate, a similar return prepared by a
paid preparer in California would have a 55 percent probability of
being accurate.
In addition to having a higher likelihood of accuracy than the rest of
the country, on the average Oregon 2001 federal tax return--regardless
of whether it was self prepared or from a paid preparer--auditors
identified a smaller increase in taxes owed.[Footnote 33] In Oregon,
the average return required approximately $250 less of a change in tax
liability than the average return in the rest of the country. Our $250
estimate is conservative in that it does not incorporate the limited
number of cases with relatively large liability changes. With about
1.56 million individual tax filers in Oregon in 2001, this translates
into over $390 million more in income taxes paid in Oregon than would
have been paid if Oregon returns were prepared at the level of accuracy
seen on similar returns in the rest of the country. The average tax
liability change in California was higher than the average in the rest
of the country by approximately $90.
Although the differences we observed in the states' regulatory programs
and in how likely California and Oregon returns were to be accurate
compared to the rest of the country are consistent with the Oregon
regime leading to some improved federal tax return accuracy, the
analysis cannot rule out that the regime did not have such an effect.
We could not control for other factors that may influence accuracy,
such as whether Oregon paid preparers were more likely to be attorneys
or CPAs than preparers elsewhere in the country. Also, data are not
available on return accuracy prior to the existence of each state's
program, so we cannot compare the before and after effects of the
regimes. Before and after data might have shown, for instance, whether
the California regime leads to improved tax return accuracy compared to
what it otherwise would have been even though California's returns in
2001 were less accurate, on average, than returns in the rest of the
country. Also, we considered the accuracy of tax returns in other
states and found that some states without paid preparer laws had more
accurate tax returns than the national average, after controlling for
the factors in our model.[Footnote 34] This indicates that regulation
over paid preparers alone does not explain the differences that we
found. Further, to the extent that the Oregon regime does improve tax
return accuracy, our methodology does not identify whether any part of
the regime is most important to that result. Our methodology only takes
into account the entire regimes as implemented in Oregon and
California.
Costs and Benefits of the California and Oregon Programs Provide Some
Guidance for a National Program:
Both California and Oregon support their programs almost entirely
through fees, with state program costs averaging about $29 and $123 per
year, respectively, per registered paid preparer. In addition to the
fees charged to paid preparers, the preparers or their employers bear
other costs, such as those associated with taking courses on tax law
and return preparation. Program administrators and preparer community
representatives in both states said that there are intangible benefits
from their regulatory regimes, although there are no studies
quantifying outcomes in either place. The California and Oregon paid
preparer registration programs include differing design features, such
as on testing applicants and how much enforcement is deemed desirable,
that show, not surprisingly, that more extensive programs cost more.
California's Less Extensive Program Costs Less Than Oregon's:
California's paid preparer program is more limited in scope than
Oregon's, and has lower direct administration costs per registered
preparer. Because neither state provides funding for the programs above
the fees collected, the entire cost of both programs are borne directly
or indirectly by the regulated paid preparer communities.
As noted previously, California's program primarily requires unenrolled
preparers to register with the state and meet minimum education
requirements. The total direct budgeted cost of the California program
was about $1.2 million in fiscal year 2007, with most of the funding
coming from the $25 registration fees that CRTPs must pay, with
additional funds coming from late registration fees and other income
such as fees paid by education providers that apply to be approved as
CTEC education providers.[Footnote 35] CTEC's total budget in 2007 was
$1.2 million and CTEC reported 41,755 CRTPs in June 2008, so the cost
per CRTP was about $29. According to CTEC officials, no funds from
state tax revenues are used to pay for administering or enforcing
California's paid preparer laws.
Like California, Oregon also registers preparers and seeks to ensure
that paid preparers meet minimum education requirements, but it also
tests prospective LTPs and LTCs, adding to the administration cost of
the Oregon program. In 2008, prospective LTPs pay $50 and prospective
LTCs pay $85 to take the examinations. Also as of 2008, LTPs pay $80
and LTCs pay $95 to obtain their initial license and in each subsequent
year to renew their license. The registration fee for a new LTC who had
been an LTP is $65. OBTP also collects fines and penalties from both
unlicensed tax return preparers and licensed paid preparers who violate
Oregon laws--averaging about $38,000 per year in the 2005 through 2007
period. OBTP's administrative expenses amounted to about $490,000 in
2007--divided by the 3,993 LTCs and LTPs OBTP reported in March 2008,
this is about $123 per licensee.[Footnote 36] According to OBTP
officials, OBTPs operating funds come from the fees and fines described
above and none come from the state's general revenues.
Administrative functions of CTEC and OBTP include communicating with
paid preparers and the public at large about their regulations,
informing the paid preparer community about tax law and processing
changes, evaluating education providers, recordkeeping related to
registration and licensing, maintaining a Web site that taxpayers can
use to find a paid preparer or check that a particular paid preparer is
properly registered or licensed, and working with the state legislature
and the rest of the state government. Some of the difference in the
administrative cost per registered or licensed preparer between the two
states may be attributed to economies of scale in the registration of
paid preparers that California has relative to Oregon. While
California's direct operating budget is about twice the size of
Oregon's, the number of preparers that it registers is more than 10
times greater.
Enforcement-related expenses take up a share of the CTEC and OBTP
budgets. In California, CTEC paid the FTB $270,000 in fiscal year 2007
to conduct enforcement targeted at identifying unregistered preparers
and either bringing them into compliance or fining them. CTEC is not
involved in imposing fines on unregistered preparers and has no means
of taking enforcement action against a CRTP for misconduct, and it has
never incurred litigation expenses associated with someone appealing a
CTEC decision. In Oregon, the OBTP has a full-time investigator on its
staff and directly imposes fines on both licensed and unlicensed paid
preparers for misconduct. As discussed previously, these fines can be
appealed, so OBTP arranges with the Oregon Office of Administrative
Hearings for an administrative law judge to hear cases, and reimburses
the Oregon Attorney General's Office for counsel to handle legal
aspects of disputed cases. In 2007, OBTP expenses for its investigator
and costs related to litigation were about $93,000.[Footnote 37]
The regulatory programs in the two states impose additional costs
beyond the direct administration expenses found in the CTEC and OBTP
budgets. In both states, prospective paid preparers must meet
qualifying education requirements and the financial and time costs of
obtaining this education are directly borne by either the individual or
his or her employer. We contacted frequently used education providers
in both states and found costs were typically in the $200 to $300
range, although one was $614. According to paid preparers we spoke to,
the cost of obtaining continuing education was sometimes fairly low,
especially when continuing education was obtained through participation
in professional associations. In some associations, monthly meetings
usually include a presentation that qualifies for continuing education
credit. Other preparers, however, may choose to travel to conferences
or training sessions, such as an IRS Nationwide Tax Forum, to obtain
their continuing education over just a few days. The registration fee
for the IRS forums is fairly low--$179 for early registration in 2008.
Out-of-town travel, when necessary, adds to the cost of obtaining
required continuing education. Continuing education can also be
obtained from state-approved education providers in both classroom
settings and over the Internet.
Because results for the Oregon regime are consistent with some positive
effect on federal tax return accuracy, the cost of that regime is of
particular interest. We conservatively estimated the total costs
associated with Oregon's regulation to be about $6 million in 2007.
This estimate includes the regime's direct administrative costs as well
as an estimate of the cost of licensees obtaining qualifying and
continuing education from education providers, the value of the time
they spend in those classes and studying outside of class, and the same
education-related costs for all unsuccessful test takers. This estimate
is conservative because it counts preparer education time and expense
for all licensees, including enrolled agents, who have continuing
education requirements under that program, and employees of tax
preparation chains that require similar education for all of their
preparers. Appendix I describes how we made our estimate.
IRS has developed rough measures of return on investment in terms of
tax revenue that it assesses from uncovering noncompliance. Generally,
IRS cites an average return on investment for enforcement of 4:1, that
is, IRS estimates that it collects $4 in revenue for every $1 of
funding.[Footnote 38] For the Oregon paid preparer regulatory regime to
be considered a reasonably cost-effective tax administration policy by
this standard, it would have to account for only a small share of the
$390 million in higher federal tax revenue we estimated came in from
Oregon compared to the rest of the country.[Footnote 39] It is
important to note that the 4:1 IRS average return is based on
administrative spending and such expenses are less than 10 percent of
our approximately $6 million annual total cost estimate for the Oregon
program.
Regulation of preparers can also have the effect of increasing the
price of tax preparation services by reducing the supply of paid
preparers. A California tax preparer association representative said
that the costs to obtain and maintain CRTP status are fairly low and
likely do not have much of an impact on prices consumers pay, and that
the requirements to become a paid preparer are not so great that the
number of paid preparers in the state is being held lower than it would
be without any regulation. In Oregon, however, direct costs to become a
paid preparer and to maintain licensed status are somewhat higher.
Potentially more important, however, is the requirement that LTPs only
work in offices supervised by an LTC, attorney, or CPA, and that LTCs
may not supervise more than two offices. This means that there can be a
substantial bar to the opening of a new tax preparation business if the
owner cannot find and recruit an LTC. We were told by a representative
of a tax preparation chain that he had experienced difficulty in
opening a new rural office because he could not find an LTC to
supervise LTPs. However, since there are somewhat more LTCs in Oregon
than LTPs, such problems may be limited.[Footnote 40]
Data that could be used to analyze prices charged by paid preparers in
California or Oregon, or to compare prices charged in those states with
the rest of the country, are not available. NRP data, however, provide
a related point of comparison on the use of paid preparers. NRP data
show that taxpayers in Oregon are somewhat less likely to use a paid
preparer than taxpayers in the rest of the country and even less likely
to use paid preparers than taxpayers in California. NRP data show that
about 58 percent of individual taxpayers used paid preparers
nationally, while only 49 percent of Oregon taxpayers did so. About 64
percent of California tax returns were prepared by paid preparers. It
is possible that the Oregon regulatory regime has had the effect of
reducing the supply of paid preparers, leading to an increase in the
price charged for the service.
California and Oregon Officials Consider Their Programs to Be
Beneficial:
Program administrators and preparer community representatives in both
California and Oregon described their programs as having benefits that
outweigh their costs. Officials in both states also said they believe
that paid prepared tax returns are more accurate due to their paid
preparer regulatory regimes. However, neither California nor Oregon
program administrators have analyzed tax returns to see if this is the
case. Representatives also noted that registration facilitates
communication with paid preparers that are registered or licensed, so
notifying them about, for example, recent changes in tax rules or
forms, can be done fairly easily.
Program administrators and paid preparer community representatives in
California and Oregon also told us education requirements likely reduce
the number of incompetent paid preparers and have led to a more
professional tax preparation industry. California and Oregon program
administrators also said that consumers benefit from the ability to go
online and verify whether a paid preparer is registered or licensed.
Both state programs also give taxpayers the ability to seek restitution
when wronged by a paid preparer[Footnote 41].
A benefit of the Oregon program is that prospective preparers who
cannot pass the state examination are not allowed to prepare tax
returns in that state. As noted previously, the Oregon LTP examination
has only a 54 percent passing rate. This means that many people who
want to become paid preparers but lack the knowledge and skills
necessary to pass the Oregon exam are not legally preparing tax
returns. People in every other state with a similar desire to become a
paid preparer--and a similar lack of skill--are presumably preparing
tax returns.
Occupational licensing of other professions has been shown to have
costs and benefits to the consumer[Footnote 42]. As with other markets
for services, licensing paid preparers might be expected to have
several potential effects depending on how licensing requirements are
designed. Depending on the level of education or expertise required to
obtain a license, some preparers who become licensed may acquire
additional knowledge, which helps them better prepare returns or expand
their expertise to additional types of returns. In Oregon, officials
said that they believe unlicensed tax preparers cost the consumer money
when they prepare incorrect or inaccurate tax returns. Occupational
licensing of other professions suggests that taxpayers may be willing
to pay more to have their returns prepared by registered or licensed
paid preparers if the regulatory requirements (i.e., education
requirements) provide greater assurance of a higher quality prepared
return. Consumers who continue to use these paid preparers may benefit
as a result and some taxpayers who previously self prepared their own
returns may switch to a licensed or registered preparer because of
additional assurance of quality service. On the other hand, if the
licensing requirements cause some preparers to no longer offer
services, prices may rise and some taxpayers may switch to self
preparation.
Implications for a National Regulatory Program:
The California and Oregon paid preparer regulation programs provide
reference points for national policymakers when considering a national
paid preparer regulatory regime. In both cases, program costs are
driven by the scope of the program. As with the differences we
identified in California and Oregon, a more extensive national program
will likely cost more to administer than a less extensive one.
An additional point of comparison for policymakers considering a
potential national paid preparer program is IRS's enrolled agent
program. Enrolled agents are paid preparers who are permitted to
represent their clients in matters before IRS. Enrolled agents have to
either pass a 3-part examination covering individual income taxes,
business taxes and representation, and practices and procedures, or
have specific IRS experience.[Footnote 43] During the period May 2007
through April 2008, the overall passing rate for the three parts of the
examination was 48 percent.[Footnote 44] Prospective enrolled agents
also have to meet continuing education requirements and pay a $125
registration fee every 3 years. One area in which the enrolled agent
program parallels the two state programs we studied is that the
examination is handled through a contract that is of no direct cost to
the government. A private company developed the tests and administers
them at sites around the country and it is compensated entirely through
fees of about $100 that test takers pay to take each part of the 3-part
examination. Most of the test taking fee is retained by the contractor,
but $11 is remitted to IRS. Applicants are also required to allow IRS
to conduct a background check.[Footnote 45]
IRS officials in OPR said that the more a national program is expected
to accomplish, the more expensive it will likely be to design,
implement, and administer.[Footnote 46] Enforcement is a key
consideration, as even the fairly modest enforcement efforts in the two
states we reviewed took up 19 percent of total administrative costs in
Oregon and 23 percent in California. IRS officials said that more
extensive enforcement nationwide could be very costly. IRS officials
said they have not developed specific costs for a national regime, in
part because they are uncertain which of the many potential elements
the program would include.
Conclusions:
The California and Oregon regulatory regimes point to the feasibility
of a nationwide regulatory regime involving paid preparer education,
registration, and, as in Oregon's case, testing. Both states have
enacted registration and other requirements while funding the
administration of their programs through relatively modest fees paid by
paid preparers, similar to the way that IRS sees to the testing of
enrolled agents. A key benefit from the Oregon approach is the apparent
rigor of its qualifying examinations. Just under half of the people who
take the Oregon LTP examination fail to pass. These people are not
legally preparing tax returns in Oregon today, at least not until they
are able to pass the examination. Paid preparers with an equivalent
lack of demonstrated ability may well be working as paid preparers in
other states.
Available data do not conclusively support or refute the idea that
adopting some or all of the California or Oregon program elements at
the national level would improve the accuracy of paid prepared returns
or reduce the tax gap. However, the more stringent requirements of the
Oregon regime along with our modeling results suggest that an Oregon-
style approach to paid preparer regulation may be beneficial. The
higher level of accuracy found on Oregon returns meant $390 million
more in income taxes paid in Oregon than would have been paid if Oregon
returns were as accurate as returns everywhere else. The cost of the
Oregon program is quite small in comparison, about $490,000 per year in
administrative expenses and an estimated total of about $6 million
after including the time and expense associated with paid preparers
meeting their education and testing requirements. If only a small share
of the increased revenue is attributable to the Oregon regulatory
regime, it would compare favorably to IRS's overall efforts to increase
reporting accuracy. With over half of individual taxpayers using paid
preparers, it may be possible to make meaningful progress towards
narrowing the tax gap by requiring all paid preparers to demonstrate
competence before being allowed to prepare other people's tax returns.
However, because the extent, if any, to which the Oregon regulatory
regime improves federal tax return accuracy, is uncertain, if a similar
regulatory regime is adopted at the federal level, its effect on tax
return accuracy should be assessed. Because IRS has resumed periodic
studies of tax return accuracy, such a study could compare accuracy of
returns before and after implementation of a federal regime.
Matter for Congressional Consideration:
If Congress judges that the Oregon paid preparer regulatory regime is
likely to account for at least a modest portion of the higher accuracy
of Oregon federal tax returns and could be implemented nationwide at a
favorable cost compared to the potential benefits of improved accuracy,
it should consider adopting a similar regime nationwide. In light of
the uncertainty about the extent to which Oregon's regime improves tax
return accuracy, if Congress enacts national paid preparer legislation,
it should also require IRS to evaluate its effectiveness.
Agency Comments:
In a letter commenting on a draft of this report dated August 1, 2008,
the Commissioner of Internal Revenue noted the important role that paid
preparers play in supporting a fair, efficient, and effective system of
tax administration. His letter also notes IRS's strategy of working
with paid preparers and curbing abuses by unscrupulous preparers. IRS
also provided technical comments which we incorporated. The
Commissioner's letter is included in appendix II.
As agreed with your office, unless you publicly announce its contents
earlier, we plan no further distribution of this report until 30 days
after its date. At that time, we will send copies of this report to the
Secretary of the Treasury, the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, and
other interested parties. This report is available at no charge on
GAO's Web site at [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov].
If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please
contact me at (202) 512-9110 or brostekm@gao.gov. Contact points for
our Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found
on the last page of this report. Key contributors to this report are
listed in appendix III.
Signed by:
Michael Brostek:
Director, Tax Issues Strategic Issues Team:
[End of section]
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology:
Our objectives were to answer the following questions: (1) How do IRS,
California, Oregon, and other states regulate paid preparers? (2) Using
available IRS data, how does the accuracy of federal tax returns in
California and Oregon compare to that of returns in the rest of the
country, after accounting for other factors that might influence
accuracy? (3) What are the state-level costs and benefits of the paid
preparer programs in California and Oregon and what insights do they
provide for possible benefits if Congress were to enact national paid
preparer registration or licensing requirements?
To answer the first and third objectives we conducted a literature
review of both the California and Oregon paid preparer programs,
including a review of applicable laws and budget documents. We also
interviewed state program administrators from the California Tax
Education Council and the Oregon Board of Tax Practitioners (OBTP);
officials from the California Franchise Tax Board and the Oregon
Department of Revenue; and leaders in each state's paid preparer
community, and reviewed documents provided to us by them. At the
federal level, we reviewed appropriate legislation concerning the
regulation of paid preparers, interviewed IRS officials, primarily from
the Office of Professional Responsibility, and reviewed documents
related to the enrolled agent program. We also interviewed and obtained
data from an official from Prometric, the company IRS contracted with
to develop and administer the enrolled agent examinations. We
interviewed the National Taxpayer Advocate and members of her staff
concerning her prior recommendations to regulate paid preparers. We
also met with a representative from the National Association of
Enrolled Agents to understand their perspective on a more expansive
national regulatory regime. Finally, we conducted a literature review
of professional occupational regulation to understand the potential
effects of occupational regulation on the paid preparer profession. In
identifying nonfederal paid preparer regulation programs, we limited
our review to state governments and requirements concerning
qualification, registration, or licensing of paid preparers and we did
not consider possible county or city regulations, or laws dealing with
paid tax return preparer conduct.
For the discussion of costs and benefits from the Oregon program in the
third objective, we also used information from the OBTP about program
costs and the number of new and returning licensees in 2007. We
obtained information from education providers about the fees that they
charge for basic and continuing education. We also used the U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics national average hourly wage for paid tax return
preparers--$16.78 in 2007--the value of the time spent obtaining the
education. Using this information, we developed an estimate of the
total cost of the Oregon program. In considering costs to include, we
included higher-end estimates where possible to ensure that our
estimate of the total cost of the Oregon program was conservative. For
example, we did not consider the fact that many Oregon licensees are
employed by a national tax preparation chain that requires its paid
preparers to receive initial and continuing education, so they would be
obtaining that education regardless of the Oregon laws.
To answer the second objective, we analyzed data from IRS's National
Research Program (NRP). The NRP contains detailed tax and audit data
from approximately 47,000 randomly selected tax year 2001 returns, and
includes extensive compliance data including line-by-line estimates of
accuracy.[Footnote 47] Unlike other compliance-related data sets, NRP
data are generalizable to the population of individual taxpayers
throughout the U.S. While NRP was not designed for specific state-level
analysis, in conjunction with IRS's NRP officials, we agreed on the
types of analysis that the data would support and which variables could
be used.
Our analysis comprised four main steps, each of which is explained in
more detail below. We first examined the odds that returns from
different locations and using different preparation types were
accurate. Next, we considered the relative likelihood that a return was
accurate, prior to controlling for other factors. Additionally,
recognizing that Oregon and California differ from the rest of the
country in terms of factors potentially related to a return's accuracy,
we developed multivariate statistical models to assess whether returns
from these states were more or less likely than returns from other
states to require liability changes of $100 or more in absolute value
after controlling for other factors. We also assessed differences in
the accuracy of self-prepared tax returns. Finally, we estimated
potential cost savings using multivariate regression analysis to assess
the size of average tax liability changes for Oregon or California
returns relative to the returns in the rest of the United States,
controlling for other factors.[Footnote 48]
In creating our statistical models, we examined a variety of variables
on the basis of previous research, our reports, and recommendations
from NRP personnel. Our final model included measures of the complexity
of the return,[Footnote 49] including whether it was for a sole
proprietor or claimed the Earned Income Credit (EIC). We also included
the examination class of the return,[Footnote 50] taxpayer adjusted
gross income in quartiles, whether the return was e-filed, filing
status, and a proxy for a state's aggregate level of English
proficiency.[Footnote 51] All models were calculated using sampling
weights and robust estimation to account for differential variation
among returns in distinct sampling strata.
Logistic Regression:
Table 3 illustrates differences in likelihood that returns from
different locations and using different preparation types were
accurate. Column A of table 3 shows that, prior to controlling for
other factors, 54 percent of California returns and 71 percent of
Oregon returns were accurate compared to 64 percent of returns in the
rest of the United States. On average, 58 percent of paid preparer
returns were accurate, compared to 70 percent of self-prepared returns.
The lower half of table 3 illustrates the combined effect of location
and preparation status. Prior to controlling for other factors, 49
percent of California paid preparer returns and 67 percent of Oregon
paid preparer returns were accurate, compared to 59 percent of paid
preparer returns in the rest of the country. Similarly, without
controlling for other factors, 63 percent of California self-prepared
returns and 75 percent of Oregon self-prepared returns were accurate,
compared to 71 percent of self-prepared returns in the rest of the
country. The odds within each category, shown in column C, compare the
proportion of returns that were accurate to the proportion of returns
that were not accurate.
Table 3: Percentages, Odds, and Odds Ratios for Return Accuracy, before
and after Controlling for Other Factors:
Location: California (average);
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 54.1;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 45.9;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 1.18;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D):
.66[A];
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): .81[A].
Location: Oregon (average);
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 71.0;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 29.0;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 2.45;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D):
1.37[A];
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): 1.54[A].
Location: Rest of U.S.;
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 64.2;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 35.8;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 1.79;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D): [B];
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): [B].
Preparation type: Paid preparer (ave);
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 58.0;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 42.0;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 1.38;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D):
.58[A];
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): .89[A].
Preparation type: Self prepared (ave);
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 70.3;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 29.7;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 2.37;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D): [B];
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): [B].
Location by preparation type: Paid Preparer Returns; California paid
preparer;
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 49.4;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 50.6;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): .98;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D):
.67[A];
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): .78[A].
Location by preparation type: Paid Preparer Returns; Oregon paid
preparer;
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 67.1;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 32.9;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 2.04;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D): 1.41;
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): 1.72[A].
Location by preparation type: Paid Preparer Returns; Rest of U.S. paid
preparer;
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 59.2;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 40.8;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 1.45;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D): [B];
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): [B].
Location by preparation type: Self-prepared returns; California self-
prepared;
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 62.5;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 37.5;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 1.67;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D):
.68[A];
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): .85.
Location by preparation type: Self-prepared returns; Oregon self-
prepared;
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 74.8;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 25.2;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 2.97;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D): 1.21;
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): 1.29.
Location by preparation type: Self-prepared returns; Rest of U.S. self-
prepared;
Percentage of accurate returns (A): 71.1;
Percentage of nonaccurate returns (B): 28.9;
Odds of accuracy C = (A/B): 2.46;
Unadjusted odds ratio prior to controlling for other factors (D): [B];
Adjusted odds ratio controlling for other factors (E): [Empty].
Sources: GAO analysis of IRS's NRP data.
[A] Indicates statistical significance at the 95 percent confidence
level. The NRP sample is only one of an infinite number of samples that
could have been selected to represent the population of taxpayers in
the U.S. Statistical significance at the 95 percent level indicates
that there is less than a 5 percent chance we would have gotten a
result of this magnitude if there were no actual difference between the
group of interest and the reference category in the population.
[B] Indicates referent category of self-prepared returns and/or returns
in the rest of the United States.
[End of table]
For the next step, we used odds ratios to compare the relative
likelihood that returns from different locations or of different
preparation types were accurate. The unadjusted odds ratio in column D
compares the odds of return accuracy in each specific subgroup to a
reference group, prior to controlling for other factors. An odds ratio
of 1 illustrates that on average, returns for the two groups have the
same odds of being accurate, while odds ratios above 1 indicate a
higher likelihood of accuracy and odds ratios below 1 indicate a lower
likelihood of accuracy. Column D of table 3 illustrates that, prior to
controlling for other factors, California returns on average had lower
odds of accuracy than returns in the rest of the country, by a factor
of .66 (34 percent lower). Conversely, Oregon returns on average had
higher odds of accuracy than the rest of the country, by a factor of
1.37 (37 percent), before we account for other factors that might
influence accuracy. This pattern holds when we compare returns using
different preparation methods to similarly prepared returns. For
example, California paid preparer returns have odds of accuracy
approximately 33 percent lower than paid preparer returns in the rest
of the country, and Oregon paid preparer returns have odds that are 41
percent higher than similarly prepared returns in the rest of the
country, before controlling for other factors.
These unadjusted odds do not control for other factors that might
differentiate between returns in Oregon and California compared to
those in the rest of the country. However, descriptive data reveal that
the characteristics of returns filed in California and Oregon differ
from the characteristics of returns filed in the U.S. as a whole. For
example, a greater proportion of Oregon and California residents file
sole proprietor returns than in the U.S., on average.
To control for potential differences that might influence the
likelihood of filing an accurate return, we used multivariate logistic
regression. These models enabled us to compare the adjusted odds of
accuracy for returns from Oregon or California with returns in the rest
of the country, holding constant the effect of other factors that could
affect accuracy. Column E in the upper half of table 3 shows that the
odds of accuracy for an average Oregon return were still higher when
compared to the rest of the country, and the odds of accuracy for a
California return were still lower, after controlling for other
factors. Additionally, paid preparer returns, on average, had lower
odds of accuracy than self-prepared returns, controlling for other
factors including location. As we note previously, not all mistakes on
paid prepared tax returns are the fault of the paid preparer.
The results for all returns in the upper half of table 3 treat location
and preparation type as distinct factors, without considering potential
interaction between location and preparation type. To ensure that these
estimates did not mask compliance differences between paid preparer and
self-prepared returns and to assess the potential impact of regulation
on the population directly affected by the regime (paid preparers), we
also examined self-prepared and paid preparer returns separately (see
the lower half of table 3). These models reveal pronounced effects
among paid preparers, after controlling for other factors. Among paid
preparer returns, Oregon returns had odds of accuracy 72 percent
higher, and California returns had odds of accuracy 22 percent lower,
than comparable paid preparer returns in the rest of the country. While
self-prepared returns in California had lower odds of accuracy than
self-prepared returns in the rest of the country, and Oregon returns
had higher odds of accuracy after controlling for other factors, these
results were not statistically significant at the 95 percent level.
Our estimates of the impact of location on the likelihood that a return
was accurate had fairly wide confidence intervals. One reason for this
is due to our inability to incorporate the full range of individual or
state-level factors that might influence the likelihood of compliance,
such as whether a paid prepared return was prepared by an attorney or
CPA. Additionally, the NRP sample was designed for purposes other than
to compare states, which resulted in wider confidence bounds than would
a sample designed specifically for state-level estimates.[Footnote 52]
Our analyses identified several factors other than location that
influenced the likelihood that a return would require less than $100 in
liability changes, both among returns in general and the subpopulation
of paid preparer returns. For example, the odds that a return claiming
the EIC was accurate were less than half those of returns that did not
claim the EIC in all models.[Footnote 53] Similarly, sole proprietor
returns (those individual returns that had an attached Schedule C,
Profit or Loss from Business) had lower odds of being accurate than
other returns. Additionally, returns with a filing status of "married,
filing separately" were significantly less likely to be accurate than
returns in any other filing status. Overall, 1040 forms with total
positive incomes of less than $100,000 had higher odds of accuracy
compared to form 1040 returns with total positive income of $100,000 or
above. Conversely, among forms with total positive income of $100,000,
forms 1040F, Profit or Loss from Farming, and 1040C, U.S. Departing
Alien Income Tax Return, were less likely to be accurate. In general, e-
filed returns had slightly lower odds of accuracy than paper returns.
In addition to our main logistic regression model, we conducted a
series of alternative analyses to examine the impact of location and
paid preparer status with additional control factors and alternative
dependent variables, and found results generally consistent with the
models presented in table 3. These included several models with and
without various aggregate state factors (such as per capita income and
whether a state had an income tax), with alternative measures of
complexity (including one based on the number of schedules filed), and
with a dummy variable for returns that were software generated but not
e-filed.[Footnote 54] Finally, we examined alternative dependent
variables, including tax liability changes prior to EIC and additional
child credits, and the net sum of dollar values of line item
adjustments for each return. These additional analyses give us
confidence that our results are robust to a variety of model
specifications and different definitions of accuracy.
Cost Savings:
To identify potential cost savings from an Oregon-style regulatory
regime, we used multivariate linear analysis to assess the size of
average tax liability changes among all returns, controlling for other
factors. We conducted diagnostic analysis to identify and exclude
outliers and potentially high-leverage cases--individual cases that
have the potential to disproportionately affect our estimate when
compared to other cases. Our estimate of savings is thus conservative
when compared to an analysis that includes all cases, as it does not
incorporate the savings generated by a limited number of cases with
relatively large liability changes. After controlling for the other
factors described, we found that the average return in Oregon required
significantly lower changes in tax liability than returns in California
or the rest of the country. The average Oregon return required tax
liability increases that were approximately $250 lower than comparable
returns in the rest of the country. In contrast, the average California
return required tax liability increases that were approximately $90
higher than returns in the rest of the country, controlling for other
characteristics.
We conducted this performance audit from September 2007 through July
2008 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing
standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit
to obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable
basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives.
We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for
our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives.
[End of section]
Appendix II: Comments from the Internal Revenue Service:
Department Of The Treasury:
Commissioner:
Internal Revenue Service:
Washington, D.C. 20224:
August 1, 2008:
Mr. Michael Brostek:
Director, Tax Issues:
U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO):
441 G Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20548:
Dear Mr. Brostek:
Thank you for giving us the opportunity to comment on the draft
Government Accountability Office (GAO) report titled "Tax Preparers:
Oregon's Regulatory Regime May Lead to Improved Federal Tax Return
Accuracy and Provides a Possible Model for National Regulations" (GAO-
08-781).
According to Internal Revenue Service (IRS) data, the majority of
individual taxpayers used a return preparer in 2006. The IRS recognizes
the critical role of these preparers in supporting a fair, efficient,
and effective system of tax administration. Our strategy is to enhance
service to and collaboration with return preparers; ensure coordinated
and consistent oversight to curb abuses by unscrupulous preparers; and
identify and provide new tools to preparers.
If you have any questions, or would like to discuss in more detail,
please contact me or Michael Chesman, Director, Office of Professional
Responsibility, at (202) 927-3397.
Sincerely,
Signed by:
Douglas H. Shulman:
[End of section]
Appendix III: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments:
GAO Contact:
Michael Brostek, (202) 512-9110 or brostekm@gao.gov:
Acknowledgments:
In addition to the contact person named above, David Lewis, Assistant
Director; Crystal Bernard; Amy Bowser; James Cook; John Mingus; Ed
Nannenhorn; Karen O'Conor; and Anna Maria Ortiz made key contributions
to this report.
[End of section]
Footnotes:
[1] GAO, Tax Administration: 2007 Filing Season Continues Trend of
Improvement, but Opportunities to Reduce Costs and Increase Compliance
Should be Evaluated, [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-
08-38] (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 15, 2007).
[2] GAO, Paid Tax Return Preparers: In a Limited Study, Chain Preparers
Made Serious Errors, [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-
06-563T] (Washington, D.C.: Apr. 4, 2006).
[3] The results of the 2001 NRP are the most recent IRS compliance
research data available.
[4] Enrolled agents are allowed to represent a taxpayer before the IRS,
to prepare and file documents with the IRS for the taxpayer, and to
correspond and communicate with the IRS. Individuals can become
enrolled agents by passing a 3-part examination; IRS waives the
examination requirement for people with specific prior work experience
at IRS.
[5] We categorize a return as "accurate" if the IRS examination found
that it required a change of tax liability of less than $100 in
absolute value.
[6] See 26 U.S.C. § 7701(a)(36).
[7] Regulation of unenrolled preparers is the principal focus of this
report.
[8] Enrolled agents must complete 72 hours of continuing education and
renew their registration every 3 years.
[9] IRS officials said that the number of applications for enrollment
was 3,108 in fiscal year 2006 and 1,916 in fiscal year 2007. In fiscal
year 2005 and 2006, there were over 11,000 candidates taking the
examinations per year and 5,847 did so in fiscal year 2007. Enrollment
fees increased from $80 to $125 in fiscal year 2007. Total examination
fees increased from $55 to $291 in 2006.
[10] GAO, Paid Tax Return Preparers: In a Limited Study, Chain
Preparers Made Serious Errors, [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/cgi-
bin/getrpt?GAO-06-563T] (Washington, D.C.: Apr. 4, 2006).
[11] All percentage estimates from the NRP files have margins of error
of plus or minus 5 percentage points or less, unless otherwise noted.
All numerical estimates other than percentages have margins of error of
plus or minus 5 percent or less of the value of those numerical
estimates, unless otherwise noted.
[12] GAO, Tax Deductions: Further Estimates of Taxpayers Who May Have
Overpaid Federal Taxes by Not Itemizing, [hyperlink,
http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-02-509] (Washington, D.C.: Mar.
29, 2002).
[13] GAO, Student Aid and Postsecondary Tax Preferences: Limited
Research Exists on Effectiveness of Tools to Assist Students and
Families through Title IV Student Aid and Tax Preferences, [hyperlink,
http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-05-684] (Washington, D.C.: July
29, 2005).
[14] GAO, Paid Tax Return Preparers: In a Limited Study, Chain
Preparers Made Serious Errors, [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/cgi-
bin/getrpt?GAO-06-563T] (Washington, D.C.: Apr. 4, 2006).
[15] Department of Justice, U.S. Government Sues Jackson Hewitt Tax
Preparation Franchises in Four States, Alleging Pervasive Fraud (Apr.
3, 2007), available at [hyperlink,
http://www.usdoj.gov/tax/txdv07215.htm].
[16] Department of Justice, Corporations That Owned Jackson Hewitt
Franchises in Three States Agree to be Barred from Tax Return
Preparation (Sept. 28, 2007), available at [hyperlink,
http://www.usdoj.gov/tax/txdv07779.htm].
[17] GAO, Internal Revenue Service: Fiscal Year 2009 Budget Request and
Interim Performance Results of IRS's 2008 Tax Filing Season,
[hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-08-567] (Washington,
D.C.: Mar. 13, 2008).
[18] The National Taxpayer Advocate, National Taxpayer Advocate--FY
2002 Annual Report to Congress (Washington, D.C.: Dec. 31, 2002) and
National Taxpayer Advocate--2003 Annual Report to Congress (Washington,
D.C.: Dec. 31, 2003).
[19] The 2 years of experience can be time spent preparing tax returns
in another state or while working for an attorney, CPA, or enrolled
agent. It may not include time preparing tax returns in violation of
the registration requirement.
[20] Trust company and financial institution employees functioning
within the scope of their employment are also exempt from the
registration requirements.
[21] The California FTB is responsible for administering the state's
personal income and corporate tax.
[22] Of the 77 individuals identified, 56 registered within the 90-day
period and were not fined. The other 21 were fined $2,500. Of the 21
who were fined, 11 registered in the next year and were not subject to
any additional penalties. Six of the 21 did not register and were
issued the $5,000 penalty. The remaining 4 were no longer preparing
returns.
[23] Public accountants and their employees, employees of businesses
who prepare only their businesses' tax returns, fiduciaries and their
employees while acting on behalf of estates, and employees of
governmental agencies while performing official duties are also exempt
from Oregon's licensing requirements.
[24] Tax preparation businesses operating in Oregon must also register
with OBTP. As of February 1, 2008, the annual tax preparation business
registration fee was $110.
[25] The laws applicable to paid preparers do not apply to attorneys,
CPAs, and the employees of CPAs. However, an LTP working under the
supervision of a CPA or attorney must still follow the applicable paid
preparer laws because the LTP has chosen to be licensed by the OBTP.
[26] Continuing education may be accepted for up to 260 hours of work
experience at the rate of 1 hour of education for 5 hours of work
experience provided the course is tax related, taken within 1 year of
applying to become an LTC, and credit for the course is not claimed to
fulfill continuing education requirements for a license renewal.
[27] All passing rate figures are for the 12-month period beginning
March 1, 2006. The 30 percent passing rate for the LTC examination is
an overall figure for both the full examination and the state-law-only
portion of the examination given to enrolled agents. The passing rate
for the full LTC examination is 25 percent and the state-law-only
portion is 71 percent.
[28] We limited our search for enacted laws and pending legislation to
those concerning paid preparer qualifications and did not search for
pending or enacted legislation concerning paid preparer conduct. Also,
our search may not have identified all recent activity in states aside
from the states we found.
[29] The United States territory of Guam also has a tax preparer
program that requires all paid preparers to pass an examination,
register with Guam's Department of Revenue and Taxation, and maintain a
surety bond.
[30] The bounds of our estimates for how Oregon compared to the rest of
the country are relatively wide. For example, the 95 percent confidence
interval for our model among paid preparer returns suggests that the
odds of accuracy among Oregon returns are higher than those for returns
in the rest of the country by somewhere between 5 percent to 181
percent.
[31] The odds of accuracy are defined as the percentage of returns that
are accurate over the percentage that are inaccurate in each category.
The ratio of odds for one group (e.g., Oregon) to another group (the
rest of the country) helps to illustrate the relative likelihood of
accuracy. For an illustration of how odds ratios are calculated, see
appendix I.
[32] We also tested alternative dependent variables such as liability
changes over $10 in value and whether the net value of line item
adjustments exceeded $99. The results were largely consistent with our
model using the $100 liability threshold change.
[33] Computing accuracy for all Oregon returns takes into account that
if the Oregon paid preparer regime decreases the likelihood of
noncompliance for paid prepared returns, those wishing to be
noncompliant might switch to preparing their own returns. Because
Oregon self-prepared returns were no less accurate than returns
elsewhere in the country, even if this switching occurred it likely
would not completely offset the increased accuracy of paid prepared
returns.
[34] States besides Oregon with a statistically significant likelihood
of having paid preparer returns that were more accurate than the
national average, controlling for other factors, were Colorado, Iowa,
New Mexico, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
[35] CTEC's fiscal year operates from July 1 to June 30.
[36] OBTP's biennial fiscal years 2005 through 2007 budget was about
$980,000.
[37] This includes about $29,000 in legal fees billed to OBTP by the
Oregon Department of Justice. According to OBTP, these were mostly
associated with enforcement actions, but also included some non-
enforcement-related matters.
[38] GAO, Tax Compliance: Multiple Approaches Are Needed to Reduce the
Tax Gap, [hyperlink, http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-488T]
(Washington, D.C.: Feb. 16, 2007).
[39] At $6 million in total cost, the Oregon regulatory regime would
have to account for only about 6 percent ($23.4 million) of the $390
million in higher federal tax return accuracy to compare favorably to
IRS's estimated overall 4:1 return on investment.
[40] An alternative to finding an LTC to supervise LTPs is to hire a
CPA. Any individual employed by a CPA in Oregon may prepare tax
returns, whether an LTP or not.
[41] CRTP clients in California can make claims against the surety
bonds that CRTPs are required to obtain. LTP and LTC clients can make
complaints to OBTP, and OBTP can order restitution along with fines and
penalties.
[42] Morris M. Kleiner, Licensing Occupations: Ensuring Quality or
Restricting Competition, W.E. Upjohn Institute (Kalamazoo, Michigan,
2006) summarizes the results of several studies on the effects of
licensing on quality of service, prices, and earnings for workers in
different service markets, including teachers, dentists, lawyers, and
optometrists.
[43] An enrolled agent applicant who is requesting enrollment based on
former employment with IRS must have had (1) a minimum of 5 years
continuous employment with IRS during which the applicant must have
been regularly engaged in applying and interpreting the provisions of
the Internal Revenue Code and the regulations relating to income,
estate, gift, employment, or excise taxes, or (2) an aggregate of 10 or
more years of employment in positions involving the application and
interpretation of the provisions of the Internal Revenue Code, at least
3 of which occurred within the 5 years preceding the date of
application.
[44] Between May 2007 and April 2008, 1,856 of 4,844 attempts (38
percent) at Part 1 of the examination were successful, as were 1,558 of
3,438 attempts (45 percent) at Part 2, and 1,777 of 2,591 attempts at
Part 3 (69 percent).
[45] IRS data do not permit comparison of return accuracy by type of
paid preparer.
[46] OPR establishes and enforces standards of competence, integrity,
and conduct for enrolled agents, attorneys, CPAs, and other individuals
and groups covered by IRS Circular 230.
[47] More accurate returns that result in higher revenues collected
than less accurate returns are the measure of societal benefit that we
considered for purposes of this report.
[48] We define tax liability as taxes owed after accounting for the
Earned Income Credit and the additional child tax credit.
[49] Our measure of complexity is a three-point scale based on research
presented by John Guyton, Karen Masken, and Mark Mazur at the 2007
National Tax Association Conference on Taxation.
[50] The examination class is defined by the income reported on the
return and, for sole proprietors or farm owners, the gross receipts of
the return.
[51] All models were calculated using sampling weights and robust
estimation to account for potential correlation between returns in the
same sampling stratum. We used likelihood ratio tests and Aikake's
Information Criterion when deciding on a final model specification.
[52] The design effect, which compares the effect of a complicated
sample design compared to a simple random sample, helps to illustrate
the impact of the NRP sampling design on state-level estimates. These
design effects indicate that standard errors for estimates of the
effect of being in California and Oregon were more than 2 ½ times what
we would expect to see from a random sample. Large standard errors make
it more difficult to detect statistical significance.
[53] Controlling for other factors, paid preparer returns claiming the
EIC had odds of accuracy 76 percent lower than that of non-EIC paid
preparer returns, whereas self prepared returns claiming the EIC had
odds 68 percent lower than those of non-EIC self-prepared returns.
[54] We could not find written IRS guidance on how to interpret the
flag for computer-generated returns. Although IRS staff confirmed that
the flag was distinct from the e-filing code, we found some overlap in
the NRP data. The variable did not consistently improve model fit when
added to the model described above.
[End of section]
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